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| Adam Weishaupt founded the Illuminati of
Bavaria on May 1, 1776 on the principles of his early training
as a Jesuit. Originally called the Order of the
Perfectibilists, "its professed object was, by the mutual
assistance of its members, to attain the highest possible
degree of morality and virtue, and to lay the foundation for
the reformation of the world by the association of good men to
oppose the progress of moral evil."1
|
FRENCH
REVOLUTION
EUROPEAN
ILLUMINATI
MYTHOLOGY
OF SECRET SOCIETIES
NEW
ENGLAND SCARE |
| A
Bavarian Illuminati primer |
| "As Weishaupt
lived under the tyranny of a despot and priests, he knew that
caution was necessary even in spreading information, and the
principles of pure morality. This has given an air of mystery to his
views, was the foundation of his banishment.... If Weishaupt had
written here, where no secrecy is necessary in our endeavors to
render men wise and virtuous, he would not have thought of any
secret machinery for that purpose."- Thomas
Jefferson |
It is difficult, in the modern English-speaking
world, to determine exactly what the Illuminati of Bavaria really
was. Although both John Robison and the Abbé Barruel 2
published their accusations and theories in English, the source
documents have remained in their native German. Robison freely
admitted that he had scanty knowledge of German and had derived all
his information from other writers. 3
Unfortunately neither he nor Barruel were concerned with providing
references for their sources. When they do quote from the papers and
correspondence of the Order as published by the Bavarian government
or the published works of Adam Weishaupt and Adolph Knigge, they
also fail to provide context or citations.
 | | Adam Weishaupt (1748 - 1830) |
Adam Weishaupt was born February 6, 1748
at Ingolstadt and educated by the Jesuits. His appointment as
Professor of Natural and Canon Law at the University of Ingolstadt
in 1775, a position previously held by one of the recently disbanded
Jesuits,4 gave,
it is said, great offence to the clergy. "Weishaupt, whose views
were cosmopolitan, and who knew and condemned the bigotry and
superstitions of the Priests, established an opposing party in the
University...." 5
Weishaupt was not then a freemason; he was initiated into a Lodge of
Strict Observance, Lodge Theodore of Good Council (Theodor zum guten
Rath), at Munich in 1777.
Most information
regarding the rituals and objectives of the order is derived from
papers and correspondence found in a search of Xavier Zwack's
residence in Landshut on October 11, 1786, and a search of Baron
Bassus's castle of Sondersdorf in Bavaria in 1787. 6 These
documents were published by the Bavarian government, under the
title: Einige Originalschriften des Illuminaten Ordens,
Munich, 1787. Perhaps the best English exposition on the Order is
found in Chapter
III of Vernon L. Stauffer's New England and the Bavarian
Illuminati, pp. 142-228.
As an example of the
mythology that surrounds the history of the Illuminati, note that
Barruel claimed that Lanz, an Illuminati courier and apostate
priest, was struck by lightning, thus revealing Weishaupt's papers
to the authorities, but this does not appear to be substantiated.
This error was widely reprinted and enlarged on by subsequent
anti-masons whose lack of research and disdain for historical
accuracy has lead them to confuse Johann Jakob Lanz (d.1785),
a non-Illuminati secular priest in Erding, and friend of Weishaupt,
with Franz Georg Lang, a court advisor in Eichstätt who was active
in the Illuminati under the name Tamerlan.
Barruel mistakenly translated
"weltpriester", or secular priest, as apostate priest and subsequent
writers such as Webster
and Miller
have repeated this error. Eckert renamed Weishaupt's friend as Lanze
and had him struck by lightning while carrying dispatches in
Silesia. Miller cited Eckert but renamed Lanz as Jacob Lang and
placed the lightning strike in Ratisbon. This is a minor detail in
the history but it demonstrates the lack of accuracy often displayed
by detractors of the Illuminati.7
Neither Robison nor Barruel deny that
the professed goal of the Order was to teach people to be happy by
making them good — to do this by enlightening the mind and freeing
it from the dominion of superstition and prejudice. But they refused
to accept this at face value. Where Weishaupt and Knigge promoted a
freedom from church domination over philosophy and science, Robison
and Barruel saw a call for the destruction of the church. Where
Weishaupt and Knigge wanted a release from the excesses of state
oppression, Robison and Barruel saw the destruction of the state.
Where Weishaupt and Knigge wanted to educate women and treat them as
intellectual equals, Robison and Barruel saw the destruction of the
natural and proper order of society.
The rituals were of a rationalistic
and not occult nature. Status as a freemason was not
required for initiation into the Order of Illuminati since the
fourth, fifth and sixth degrees of Weishaupt and Baron
Adolphe-François-Frederic Knigge's
system practically duplicated the three degrees of symbolic
Freemasonry. Although Knigge claimed to have a system of ten
degrees, the last two appear never to have been fully worked up.8
| | Baron Adolph Knigge (1752 - 1796) |
"The Order was at first very popular, and enrolled no
less than two thousand names upon its registers.... Its Lodges were
to be found in France, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Poland,
Hungary, and Italy. Knigge, who was one of its most prominent
working members, and the auther of several of its Degrees, was a
religious man, and would never have united with it had its object
been, as has been charged, to abolish Christianity. But it cannot be
denied, that in the process of time abuses had crept into the
Institution and that by the influence of unworthy men, the system
became corrupted; yet the course accusations of Barruel
and Robison are known to be exaggerated, and some of them
altogether false.... The Edicts [on June 22, 1784, for its
suppression] of the Elector of Bavaria [Duke
Karl Theodor] were repeated in March and August, 1785 and the
Order began to decline, so that by the end of the eighteenth century
it had ceased to exist.... it exercised while in prosperity no
favorable influence on the masonic institution, nor any unfavorable
effect on it by its dissolution."9
In 1785 Weishaupt was deprived of his
chair and banished with pension from the country. He moved to Gotha
where he found asylum with Duke Ernst, remaining there until his
death in 1811.
Coil describes the order as a "short lived, meteoric and
controversial society"10 while
Kenning refers to it as a "mischievous association".11 In his
own defence, Weishaupt wrote:
"Whoever does not close his ear
to the lamentations of the miserable, nor his heart to
gentle pity; whoever is the friend and brother of the
unfortunate; whoever has a heart capable of love and
friendship; whoever is steadfast in adversity, unwearied in
the carrying out of whatever has been once engaged in,
undaunted in the overcoming of difficulties; whoever does
not mock and despise the weak; whose soul is susceptible of
conceiving great designs, desirous of rising superior to all
base motives, and of distinguishing itself by deeds of
benevolence; whoever shuns idleness; whoever considers no
knowledge as unessential which he may have the opportunity
of acquiring, regarding the knowledge of mankind as his
chief study; whoever, when truth and virtue are in question,
despising the approbation of the multitude, is sufficiently
courageous to follow the dictates of his own heart, - such a
one is a proper candidate." 12
"The tenor of
my life has been the opposite of everything that is vile;
and no man can lay any such thing to my charge." 13
As regards any information derived from the celebrated
anti-mason, John Robison 14: "In
the (London) Monthly Magazine for January 1798 there appeared
a letter from Böttiger, Provost of the College of Weimar, in reply
to Robison's
work, charging that writer with making false statements, and
declaring that since 1790 'every concern [sic] of the Illuminati has
ceased.' Böttiger also offered to supply any person in Great
Britain, alarmed at the erroneous statements contained in the book
above mentioned, with correct information." 15
Of the 67 names published by the Abbé
Barruel, 10 were professors, 13 were nobles, 7 were in the church, 3
were lawyers and the balance were drawn from the growing middle
class: mostly government officials and merchants and a few military
officers. 16
John
M. Roberts claims that
"[Weishaupt] rapidly rationalized difficulties growing out of his
own rashness and taste for intrigue as the product of obscurantism
and soon envisaged wider purposes for his society"17 while
Robert Gilbert feels that Christopher McIntosh "overestimates the
strength and significance of the Illuminati."18
Researchers are directed to a list of
books and pamphlets written by Weishaupt found at the end of this
paper. A further bibliography can be found in Vernon L. Stauffer's
New
England and the Bavarian Illuminati, pp. 185-86. The United
Grand Lodge of England Library catalogue includes: P.4. Adam
Weishaupt, Uber den allgorischen Geist des Alterthums.
Regensburg, 1794. 8vo.
Evidence would suggest that the
Bavarian Illuminati was nothing more than a curious historical
footnote. Certainly, this is the opinion of masonic writers. Conspiracy
theorists though, are not noted for applying Occam's razer and
have decided that there are connections between the Illuminati, the
Freemasons, the Trilateral Commission, British Emperialism,
International Zionism and (if you read the writings of Jack T. Chick
of Chino California) communism, that all lead back to the Vatican
(or if David Icke is to be believed, extra-terrestrial lizard
people) in a bid for world domination. Believe what you will but
there is no evidence that any Illuminati survived its founders.
After the Illuminati
The Encyclopaedia Britannica refers to Illuminati
"cells" in an article on eighteenth century Italy as "republican
freethinkers, after the pattern recently established in Bavaria by
Adam Weishaupt."19 and as
a "rationalistic secret society" in an article on Roman
Catholicism.20
Depending on your perspective, the lack of any detailed information
on the Illuminati in the Encyclopaedia Britannica can be
ascribed to their current power and secretiveness or to the much
simpler explanation that the editors found the order to be of little
importance in the flow of history and social development.
Eliphas
Lévi made the following unsubstantiated juxapositions in 1860:
"... it was this same memory
handed on to secret associations of Rosicrucians,
Illuminati and Freemasons which gave a meaning to their
strange rites...." 21
"...under the names of Magic, Manicheanism,
Illuminism and Masonry...." 22
"The
maniacal circles of pretended illuminati go back to
the bacchantes who murdered Orpheus. 23
"Long
before there was any question of mediums and their
evocations in America and France, Prussia had its
illuminati and seers, who had habitual communications
with the dead." 24
There is
a secret correspondence belonging to the reign [of King
Frederick William] which is cited by the Marquis de Luchet
in his work against the illuminati..." 25
More important than the existence of
any illuminati after 1784, was the fear that they existed. John M.
Roberts, in his Mythology
of Secret Societies details this concern of European rulers,
and concludes that their oppressive reactions to this fear provoked
the very revolutions they sought to prevent. Another insight into
how this fear outstripped the facts can be found in Vernon L.
Stauffer's New
England and the Bavarian Illuminati (1918).
Although attempts have been made to
revive the order, none appear to have survived their founders. As an
example, William
Westcott, in exchange for the Swedenborgian
Rite, received membership in the "Order of the Illuminati" from
Theodor
Reuss in 1902. Documentation is not available, nor is any
explanation or description of this "Order" given. 26
Illuminati predecessors
These societies are only of interest
insofar as they have been claimed by anti-masons and conspiracy
theorists to demonstrate a perceived long-term anti-christian
conspiracy. There is no similarity between the objectives of these
societies and the Bavarian Illuminati.
Hesychasts: Hesychasm is a form
of Eastern Christian monastic life requiring uninterrupted prayer.
Dating from the 13th century, it was confirmed by the Orthodox
Church in 1341, 1347 and 1351, and popularized by the publication of
the "Philokalia" in 1782.
Alumbrados:
(Spanish for 'enlightened') A mystical movement first recorded
by Menendez Pelavo about 1492 in Spain; in part they were drawn from
Jesuit and Franciscan communities. They believed that the human soul
could enter into direct communication with the Holy Spirit and, due
to their extravagant claims of visions and revelations, had three
edicts issued against them by the Catholic Inquisition, the first on
September 23, 1525. Althugh Ignatius of Loyola — founder of the
Jesuits in 1534, and composer of the 'Constitutions" of the Society
of Jesus — was brought before an ecclesiastical commission in
Salamanca on a charge of sympathy with the alumbrados in 1527, he
wrote nothing that would suggest he accepted their beliefs.27 The
name translates as 'illuminati' but the name is the only similarity
with the later Bavarian Illuminati.
Guérinets: The alumbrados,
under the name of Illuminés, arrived in France from Seville in 1623,
and were joined in 1634 by Pierre Guérin, curé of Saint-Georges de
Roye, whose followers in Picardy and Flanders, known as Guérinets,
were suppressed in 1635 (Jean Hermant 1650-1725, Histoire des
hérésies, Rouen : 1727). "Another and obscure body of Illumines
came to light in the south of France in 1722, and appears to have
lingered till 1794, having affinities with those known
contemporaneously in this country as 'French Prophets,' an offshoot
of the Camisards." [Encyclopaedia
Britannica, 1911 edition.]
Illuminati claimants
Illuminaté d'Avignon: Formed by
Don Antoine Joseph de Pernetti and the Polish Count Starost
Grabianca in Avignon, France in 1770 (Kenning
says 1787); moved to Montpellier as the "Acadamy of True Masons" in
1778. Although Kloss claims they were in existence in 1812, they
would seem to have disappeared in the French Revolution
Illuminated Theosophists or
Chastanier's Rite: A 1767 modification of Pernetti's "Hermetic
Rite" that later merged with the London Theosophical Society in
1784.
Concordists: A secret order
established in Prussia by M. Lang, on the wreck of the Tugendverein
("Tugendverein", German for the Union of the Virtuous), which latter
Body was instituted in 1790 [Miller says 1786] by Henrietta and
Marcus Herz as a successor of the Illuminati [or Moses Mendelssohn].
According to Thomas Frost, Secret Societies of the European
Revolution, vol. i, p. 183 [cited in Occult
Theocrisy, p. 377.] a second Tugendbund was formed by von
Stein in 1807. It was suppressed in 1812 by the Prussian Government,
on account of its supposed political tendencies, and was revived
briefly between 1830-33.
World League of Illuminati:
Allegedly the singer and journalist Theodor
Reuss "re-activated" the Order of Illuminati in Munich in 1880.
Leopold Engel founded his World League of
Illuminati in Berlin in 1893. From these two sprung the Ordo
Illuminatorum which was still active in Germany as late as the
mid-1970s. Much research has been compiled by Peter-R. Koenig.
Illuminates of Stockholm: The
Illuminated Chapter of Swedish
Rite Freemasonry is currently composed of approximately 60 past
or current Grand Lodge officers who have received the honorary 11th
degree. It makes no claim to be related, historically or
philisophically, with the Bavarian Illuminati and strictly speaking
should not be included in this list.
Die Alte Erleuchtete Seer Bayerns:
Alleged by Marc Lachance to have
been founded in 1947 by employees of the Munich newspaper,
Suddeutsche Zeitung, there are unsubstantiated claims to a
longer lineage. With some 100 members claimed in Bavaria,
Baden-Wurttenburg and Thuringia, they have disavowed ritual, and
keep organised structure to a minimum. 28
The Illuminati
Order: Self-styled Grandmaster Solomon Tulbure [assumed to
be a pseudonym] can be found online at <OneWorldOrder.Org> or by
regular post at P.O. Box 201 Powell, TN 37849 USA.
Orden Illuminati:
Another addition to the list of claimants to the Illuminati
tradition, this group was founded in Spain in 1995 by Gabriel López
de Rojasn and can be found online at <http://www.freemasonry.bcy.ca/Writings/www.ordeniluminati.com>
Notes:
1. Encyclopedia of Freemasonry, Albert G. Mackey. Richmond,
Virginia: Macoy Publishing. 1966, p.474.
^
2. Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism,
Written in French by the Abbé Barruel, and translated into English
by the Hon. Robert Clifford, F.R.S. & A. S. "Princes and Nations
shall disappear from the face of the Earth ... and this revolution
shall be the work of secret societies." Weishaupt's Discourse for
the Mysteries. Part I. The Antichristian Conspiracy. Second Edition,
revised and corrected. London: Printed for the Translator, by T.
Burton, No. 11, Gate-fleet, Lincoln's-Inn Fields. Sold by E. Booker,
No. 56, New Bond-Street. 1798 [Entered at Stationers Hall.] p. 261
^
3. Proofs of a Conspiracy against all the Religions and Governments of Europe carried on in the Secret Meetings of the Freemasons, Illuminati, and Reading Societies, collected from Good Authorities, John Robison (1739 - 1805). printed by George Forman for Cornelious David, Edinburgh: 1797. (531 pages). Postscript, p. 2.
^
4. "In 1773 Pope Clement XIV, under pressure especially from the
governments of France, Spain and Portugal, issued a decree
abolishing the order. The society's corporate existence was
maintained in Russia, where political circumstances—notably the
opposition of Catherine II the Great—prevented the canonical
execution of the suppression. The demand that the Jesuits take up
their former work, especially in the field of education and in the
missions, became so insistent that in 1814 Pope Pius VII
reestablished the society." The New Encyclopaedia Britannica,
Chicago: 1989, 15th edition.
^
5.Encyclopedia of Freemasonry, Albert G. Mackey. Richmond,
Virginia: Macoy Publishing. 1966, p. 1099.
^
6. The Secret Societies of all ages and Countries [in two
volumes], Charles William Heckethorn. London: George Redway. 1897
p.310. Cf. Memoirs Illustrating the History of
Jacobinism.
^
7. "Among his adepts was one LANZ, an apostate priest. Weishaupt
designed him as the person to carry his mysteries and conspiracies
into Selesia. His mission was already fixed, and Weishaupt was
giving him his last instructions, when a thunder-bolt from Heaven
struck the apostate dead, and that by the side of Weishaupt.
The Brethren, in their first fright, had not recourse to their
ordinary means for diverting the papers of the deceased adept from
the inspection of the magistrate. [footnote] See the Apology of
the Illuminees, P. 62." Barruel. p. 244.  Cf.: "When my late friend Lanz was struck by
lightning at my side in the year 1785 in Regensburg, what an
opportunity this could have provided me to play the penitent and
remorseful hypocrite, and thus gain the confidence of my
persecutors." trans. from : "Als im Jahre 1785 in Regensburg
mein seeliger Freund Lanz an meiner Seite vom Blitz ersclagen wurde,
welche Gelegenheit hätte ich gehabt, den reumütigen und bußfertigen
Henchler zu machen und auf diese Art das Zutrauen meiner Verfolger
zu erwerben?" Kurze Rechtfertigung meiner Absichten.
Frankfort and Leipzig, 1787. Quoted in Die Illuminaten, Quellen
und Text zur Aufklärungsideologie des Illuminatenordens
(1776-1785) Herausgegeben von Jan Rachold. Berlin:
Akademie-Verlag, 1984. p. 363. Also see pp. 127, 132, 140, 150-160,
168 for Franz Georg Lang.
^
8. Mackey. p. 475.
^
9. Mackey. p. 1099.
^
10.Coil's
Masonic Encyclopedia, Henry Wilson Coil. New York: Macoy
Publishing. 1961 p. 545.
^
11. Kenning's Masonic Cyclopaedia and Handbook of Masonic
Archeaology, History and Biography, ed. Rev. A. F. A. Woodford.
London: 1878. p. 326.
^
12. Adam Weishaupt, An Improved System of the Illuminati, Gotha:
1787. ^
13. Adam Weishaupt (1748 - 1811), An Apology for the Illuminati,
Gotha: 1787. ^
14. See
biographical
notes: New England and the Bavarian Illuminati, Chapter
III, pp. 142-228. Vernon L. Stauffer. 1918. with bibliographical
notes. ^
15. Heckethorn, p.314.
^
16. Heckethorn, pp. 305-16; Barruel, pp. 202-05. Estimates of the total
membership have ranged from Le Forestier's 650 to Albert MacKey's
2000. ^
17. J.M. Roberts,
"The
Mythology of Secret Societies", New York: Charles Scribner's
Sons. 1972, pp. 123-4.
^
18. Christopher McIntosh, "The Rose Cross and the Age of Reason",
Leiden, E.J. Brill, 1992, reviewed by Robert Gilbert in the
Transactions of Quatuor Coronati Lodge No. 2076, London:
Butler & Tanner Ltd.1993 p. 241.
^
19. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th edition. Vol. 22, p. 223, 2b.
^
20. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th edition. Vol. 26, p. 937, 2b.
^
21. Eliphas
Lévi. The History of Magic. Reprinted by Samual Weiser,
Inc., New York: 1973. p. 32.
^
22. ibid. p. 65.
^
23. ibid p. 130.
^
24. ibid. Chapter VI: "The German Illuminati". p. 317.
^
25. ibid p. 317.
^
26. R.A. Gilbert. "Chaos out of order: the rise and fall of the
Swedenborgian Rite".
Ars Quatuor
Coronatorum. Transactions of Quatuor Coronati Lodge No.
2076. Volume 108 for the Year 1995. Edited by Robert A. Gilbert. p.
134. ^
27. "The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius", trans. by L.J. Puhl
(1951); "The Constitutions of the Society of Jesus; Translated with
an Introduction and a Commentary", by G.E. Ganss:1970.
^
28. Marc Etienne Lachance is a German freelance database and website
developer with an interest in role-playing games, the Church of the
SubGenius and Principia Discordia. There is no corroboration
for his claims. ^
* Noted in Man, Myth & Magic. No. 50, p. 1404.
Ellic
Howe [1910-1991]. BPC Publishing Ltd., London: 1970. [also
source for portraits of Weishaupt and Knigge.]
^
† Also listed by Augustin Barruel (1741/10/02 - 1820/10/05). p. 202.
^
‡ Barruel lists a "Bode, F. H." and a "Busche, F. H.". p. 202.
^
§ Not listed by Barruel. Heckethorne does not note if this is General
Claude-Louise, compte de Saint-Germain (1707/04/15 - 1778/01/15),
Louise XVI's minister of war, or the compte de Saint-Germain
(c.1710 - 1784/02/27?), a celebrated adventurer known as
der Wundermann who
Cagliostro,
in his Mémoires authentiques, claimed was the founder of
Freemasonry. ^
Primary source published texts:
cf.: Die Bibliothek des
Deutschen Freimaurermuseums in Bayreuth - Katalog.
Knigge, Adolph, Freiherr von (1752-1796),
Freimauer- und Illuminatenschriften. Raabe Paul [Editor]
Samtliche Werke / Knigge, Adolph, Facsim. of 1781-1873 eds &
transcription of MS. Munchen, Sau: Nendeln : KTO, 1978-92.
Christoph Friedrich Nicolai (3/18/1733 - 1/8/1811),
Versuch über die Besschuldigungen welch dem Tempelherrnorden
gemacht worden und über dessen Geheimniss; nebst einem Anhange uber
das Entstehen der Freimaurergesellschaft. [An Essay on the
accusations made against the Order of Knights Templar and their
mystery; with an Appendix on the origin of the Fraternity of
Freemasons], Berlin: 1782.
Weishaupt, Adam, Die Illuminaten : Quellen und Texte zur
Aufklärungsideologie des Illuminatenordens (1776-1785) /
herausgegeben von Jan Rachold. Berlin : Akademie-Verlag, 1984. 409
p. ; 20 cm. LCCN: 85111344
Weishaupt, Adam, Über die Selbsterkenntnis. Ihre
Hindernisse und Vorteile. Nach dem Original von 1794. [3. Aufl.
hrsg. im Auftrage von Ordo Illuminatorum (u.a.) Zürich,
Psychosophische Gesellschaft, 1966] 200 p. 15 cm. LCCN: 67106086.
Weishaupt, Adam, Illuminatenorden. Die neuesten
Arbeiten des Spartacus und Philo in dem Illuminaten-Orden jetzt zum
erstenmal gedruckt und zur Beherzigung bey gegenwärtigen Zeitläuften
herausgeben. [n.p.] 1794. 200, 90, 77 p. 20 cm. LCCN: 77465925.
Weishaupt, Adam, Ueber die Gründe und Gewisheit
der menschlichen Erkenntniss; zur Prüfung der Kantischen Critik der
reinen Vernunft. Nürnberg, in der Grattenauerischen
Buchhandlung, 1788. [Bruxelles, Culture et Civilisation, 1969] 204
p. 19 cm. LCCN: 73357961.
Weishaupt, Adam, Apologie der Illuminaten ...
Frankfurth und Leipzig [i.e. Nürnberg] In der Grattenauerischen
buchhandlung, 1786. p. cm. Zweifel über die Kantischen Begriffe von
Zeit und Raum. LCCN: 09011125.
Weishaupt, Adam, Zweifel über die Kantischen Begriffe
von Zeit und Raum. Nürnberg, 1788. [Bruxelles, Culture et
Civilisation, 1968] 120 p. 19 cm. LCCN: 79459272.
Additional references:
"Illuminism and the French Revolution". Edinburgh
Review. vol. 204, July 1906. pp. 35-60.
Jedediah
Morse and the Bavarian Illuminati: An Essay on
the Rhetoric of Conspiracy Central States Speech Journal
Fall/Winter 1988. pages 293-303.
New
England and the Bavarian Illuminati Capter III, pp. 142-228.
Vernon L. Stauffer. 1918. with bibliographical notes.
Bavarian Illuminati FAQ Ver 1.2. Peter Trei. Jan.
1994. Further references to popular usage of the term "Illuminati."
Mirrored frequently online.
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