Christmas

Christmas, December 25. Christmas is the annual feast commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ. Observed annually on December 25. Also known as the Nativity.

Orthodox Christmas, January 7. On January 7 in accordance with the Julian calendar.

The Origins of Christmas

Christmas is more a day honoring the birth of Christ than it is a birthday celebration on the precise date, as the real birthday of Christ is unknown. December is the rainy season in Judea, and a time when shepherds would not have been in the fields of Bethlehem. Even the year is not certain, and could not have been later than 4 B.C, the year of King Herod's death. Furthermore, the early Christians did not celebrate birthdays, and the celebration of Christ's birth is not as religiously significant as his ressurection, celebrated with Easter. It is most likely that the observance of Christmas was established to replace existing pagan festivals of the time. Pagan festivals celebrating the winter solstice were common in pre-Christian times, the most significant at the time being the Roman Saturnalia, and the Mithraic birthday of the unconquered sun. Much of our current Christmas lore comes from these ancient customs. Saint Nicholas inherited his reindeer from the Nordic god Odin, chief of the wild hunt, who rode with them through the sky. Saturnalia. This ancient Roman festival occuring December 17 to 23 was the predecessor to many of the customs of Christmas. The festival of Saturn celebrated in ancient Rome, at the end of the vintage and harvesting, with feasting and unrestrained merrymaking. It honored Saturnus, the god of agriculture. Observance included exchanging presents and offering sacrifices. Masters served their slaves as a token of the equality of rank and the lack of class distinctions during the golden age (which was supposedly ruled over by Saturnus). Gifts were exchanged, most commonly wax tapers and clay dolls which were primarily given to children.

Mithra. Mithraism was Christianity's main competitor for converts in early Chrisitan times. Mithraic winter festival celebrating the birthday of Mithra, the god of the Sun, Coincides with a pagan celebration of the winter solstice -- "birthday of the unconquered sun".

Early Celebrations. Christmas did not appear until the 4th century, and its establishment was preceded by Easter, Pentecost, Ascension, and Epiphany. Celebrated in Rome from beginning about 330 A.D., but even then probably not widespread. It was mentioned by Clemens Alexadrinus around this time. Original date was January 6 in the Eastern churches as part of the Epiphany observance, but this was replaced with December 25 in the 5th century.

Christmas Customs

Just as the date of Christmas was due to pagan festivals, many of the Christmas customs we celebrate today have ancient origins, not only from the Roman Saturnalia, but from the Druids, Teutons, and others, who had their own winter celebrations. Nordic [Teutonic] Juul, etc. Some of the customs, i.e. christmas carols, may have come from the Lord of Misrule celebration.

Mistletoe. The hanging of mistletoe comes from the Druids, to whom it was believed to have healing powers. They would hang it over their doors to appease the woodland spirits, in the belief that only happiness could pass the mistletoe. From this is derived the custom to kiss under the mistletoe at Christmas time. Holly The use of holly to "deck the halls" most likely either comes from Saturnalia or from the Teutonic tradition of hanging evergreens in homes as a refuge for sylvan spirits from the inclement winter weather.

Gifts. There had long been a custom of exchanging gifts on New Year's Day [romans?]. Because of the pagan origins of this custom, and the desire by the Christians to abolish all pagan customs combined with the difficulty in eliminating long observed customs, the gift-giving custom was moved to Christmas, where it could be looked upon as an emulation of the Magi, and a token of generosity and goodwill.

Santa Claus. The name is a corruption of Saint Nicholas (Sinter Klaas), the patron saint of children, whose feast day is on December 6. It was the custom in old England to clean out the chimney at the beginning of the year so that luck could descend and stay all year. This may have been the origin for Santa Claus' habit of entering through the chimney.

Christmas tree. Only legends. The Christmas tree was originally a German tradition. Although perhaps not completely unknown in England, did not become standard until Queen Victoria married the German Prince Albert. In 1870, the German Army celebrated Christmas in Notre Dame, thereby introducing the custom to France [franco-prussian war?]. The custom was brought to America by German immigrants. Christmas Around the World

Day of the Dead, El Dia De Los Muertos

Dia de los Muertos, or Day of the Dead, is a celebration that captures the idea of unity between life and death. It emphasizes death as part of the cycle of life and came into being when the Catholic feast of All Souls' Day, a day to remember the dead with prayer, merged with Indian rituals of death after the Spanish conquered Mexico in 1521.

Dia de Los Muertos is considered one of Mexico's most wondrous celebrations, merging Spanish and European religion and traditions with ancient beliefs and superstitions of pre-Colombian Indian cultures dating as far back as 300 B.C.

The celebration for Dia de los Muertos coincides with both indigenous celebrations and the Catholic religious practices of All Saints Day (November 1st) and All Souls Day (November 2nd). In anticipation of the honored guests, the cleaning and decorating of the altars (at the grave site) traditionally occurs on October 31st. The annual festivities associated with the Day of the Dead mark a very special occasion when the living have an opportunity to show respect for their deceased relatives, whose spirits are expected to return to thier homes.

On these uniquely created altars, one places zempasuchil (yellow marigolds), a glass of water, candles, toys, religious pictures, cut tissue-paper decorations, and personal mementos as offerings to the returning souls. Incense, cigarettes, liquor, and food such as tamales, candles, sugar skulls, and pan de muertos (bread of the dead), are also offered as familiar things which the returning soul enjoyed during his or her life. It is believed that both the adults'and the childrens' spirits will go away weeping if nothing is offered to them.

Besides their religious symbolism, candles are placed on the ofrendas to light and guide the way of the souls to the altars. The childrens' spirits are anticipated to arrive just before dawn on November 1st. But only for a few hours. Prayers are said at the altars. Incense is burned and food is offered until dawn. Everyone is invited to attend mass at church on the morning of November 2nd.

To mark the departure of the spirits, family members and friends participate in the ritual of blowing out and removing the candles from the altars. On November 4th, the altars and decorations are removed.

Druidism

Druidism, religious faith of ancient Celtic inhabitants of Gaul and the British Isles from the 2nd century BC until the 2nd century AD. In parts of Britain that the Romans did not invade, Druidism survived until it was supplanted by Christianity two or three centuries later. This religion included belief in the immortality of the soul, which at death was believed to pass into the body of a newborn child. According to Julius Caesar, drawing on a biased account of the cult written by Posidonius, a Stoic philosopher and historian, the Druids believed that they were descended from a supreme being.

The ancient accounts assert that the functions of priests, religious teachers, judges, and civil administrators were performed by Druids, with supreme power being vested in an archdruid. Three classes of Druids existed: prophets, bards, and priests. They were assisted by female prophets or sorcerers, who did not enjoy the powers and privileges of the Druids. The Druids were well versed in astrology, magic, and the mysterious powers of plants and animals; they held the oak tree and the mistletoe, especially when the latter grew on oak trees, in great reverence, and they customarily conducted their rituals in oak forests. Archaeologists believe that the Druids probably used as altars and temples the stone monuments known as dolmens that are found throughout the areas where Druidism flourished. Stonehenge in England antedates Druidism by many centuries.

The Druids led their people in resisting the Roman invasions, but their power was weakened by the rebelliousness of the Gallic warriors, who were envious of their political authority. The superior military strength of the Romans and the subsequent conversion of many followers of Druidism to Christianity led to the disappearance of the religion.

Samhain. All Hallows. All Hallow's Eve. Hallow E'en. Halloween. The most magical night of the year. Exactly opposite Beltane on the wheel of the year, Halloween is Beltane's dark twin. A night of glowing jack-o-lanterns, bobbing for apples, tricks or treats, and dressing in costume. A night of ghost stories and seances, tarot card readings and scrying with mirrors. A night of power, when the veil that separates our world from the Otherworld is at its thinnest. A 'spirit night', as they say in Wales.

All Hallow's Eve is the eve of All Hallow's Day (November 1st). And for once, even popular tradition remembers that the Eve is more important than the Day itself, the traditional celebration focusing on October 31st, beginning at sundown. And this seems only fitting for the great Celtic New Year's festival. Not that the holiday was Celtic only. In fact, it is startling how many ancient and unconnected cultures (the Egyptians and pre-Spanish Mexicans, for example) celebrated this as a festival of the dead. But the majority of our modern traditions can be traced to the British Isles.

The Celts called it Samhain, which means 'summer's end', according to their ancient two-fold division of the year, when summer ran from Beltane to Samhain and winter ran from Samhain to Beltane. (Some modern Covens echo this structure by letting the High Priest 'rule' the Coven beginning on Samhain, with rulership returned to the High Priestess at Beltane.) According to the later four-fold division of the year, Samhain is seen as 'autumn's end' and the beginning of winter. Samhain is pronounced (depending on where you're from) as 'sow-in' (in Ireland), or 'sow-een' (in Wales), or 'sav-en' (in Scotland), or (inevitably) 'sam-hane' (in the U.S., where we don't speak Gaelic).

Not only is Samhain the end of autumn; it is also, more importantly, the end of the old year and the beginning of the new. Celtic New Year's Eve, when the new year begins with the onset of the dark phase of the year, just as the new day begins at sundown. There are many representations of Celtic gods with two faces, and it surely must have been one of them who held sway over Samhain. Like his Greek counterpart Janus, he would straddle the theshold, one face turned toward the past in commemoration of those who died during the last year, and one face gazing hopefully toward the future, mystic eyes attempting to pierce the veil and divine what the coming year holds. These two themes, celebrating the dead and divining the future, are inexorably intertwined in Samhain, as they are likely to be in any New Year's celebration.

As a feast of the dead, it was believed the dead could, if they wished, return to the land of the living for this one night, to celebrate with their family, tribe, or clan. And so the great burial mounds of Ireland (sidh mounds) were opened up, with lighted torches lining the walls, so the dead could find their way. Extra places were set at the table and food set out for any who had died that year. And there are many stories that tell of Irish heroes making raids on the Underworld while the gates of faery stood open, though all must return to their appointed places by cock-crow.

As a feast of divination, this was the night par excellance for peering into the future. The reason for this has to do with the Celtic view of time. In a culture that uses a linear concept of time, like our modern one, New Year's Eve is simply a milestone on a very long road that stretches in a straight line from birth to death. Thus, the New Year's festival is a part of time. The ancient Celtic view of time, however, is cyclical. And in this framework, New Year's Eve represents a point outside of time, when the the natural order of the universe disolves back into primordial chaos, preparatory to re-establishing itself in a new order. Thus, Samhain is a night that exists outside of time and hence it may be used to view any other point in time. At no other holiday is a tarot card reading, crystal reading, or tea-leaf reading so likely to succeed.

The Christian religion, with its emphasis on the 'historical' Christ and his act of redemption 2000 years ago, is forced into a linear view of time,where 'seeing the future' is an illogical proposition. In fact, from the Christian perspective, any attempt to do so is seen as inherently evil. This did not keep the medieval Church from co-opting Samhain's other motif, commemoration of the dead. To the Church, however, it could never be a feast for all the dead, but only the blessed dead, all those hallowed (made holy) by obedience to God - thus, All Hallow's, or Hallowmas, later All Saints and All Souls.

There are so many types of divination that are traditional to Hallowstide, it is possible to mention only a few. Girls were told to place hazel nuts along the front of the firegrate, each one to symbolize one of her suiters. She could then divine her future husband by chanting, 'If you love me, pop and fly; if you hate me, burn and die.' Several methods used the apple, that most popular of Halloween fruits. You should slice an apple through the equator (to reveal the five-pointed star within) and then eat it by candlelight before a mirror. Your future spouse will then appear over your shoulder. Or, peel an apple, making sure the peeling comes off in one long strand, reciting, 'I pare this apple round and round again; / My sweetheart's name to flourish on the plain: / I fling the unbroken paring o'er my head, / My sweetheart's letter on the ground to read.' Or, you might set a snail to crawl through the ashes of your hearth. The considerate little creature will then spell out the initial letter as it moves.

Perhaps the most famous icon of the holiday is the jack-o-lantern. Various authorities attribute it to either Scottish or Irish origin. However, it seems clear that it was used as a lantern by people who traveled the road this night, the scary face to frighten away spirits or faeries who might otherwise lead one astray. Set on porches and in windows, they cast the same spell of protection over the household. (The American pumpkin seems to have forever superseded the European gourd as the jack-o-lantern of choice.) Bobbing for apples may well represent the remnants of a Pagan 'baptism' rite called a 'seining', according to some writers. The water-filled tub is a latter-day Cauldron of Regeneration, into which the novice's head is immersed. The fact that the participant in this folk game was usually blindfolded with hands tied behind the back also puts one in mind of a traditional Craft initiation ceremony.

The custom of dressing in costume and 'trick-or-treating' is of Celtic origin with survivals particularly strong in Scotland. However, there are some important differences from the modern version. In the first place, the custom was not relegated to children, but was actively indulged in by adults as well. Also, the 'treat' which was required was often one of spirits (the liquid variety). This has recently been revived by college students who go 'trick-or-drinking'. And in ancient times, the roving bands would sing seasonal carols from house to house, making the tradition very similar to Yuletide wassailing. In fact, the custom known as 'caroling', now connected exclusively with mid-winter, was once practiced at all the major holidays. Finally, in Scotland at least, the tradition of dressing in costume consisted almost exclusively of cross-dressing (i.e., men dressing as women, and women as men). It seems as though ancient societies provided an oportunity for people to 'try on' the role of the opposite gender for one night of the year. (Although in Scotland, this is admittedly less dramatic - but more confusing - since men were in the habit of wearing skirt-like kilts anyway.

To Witches, Halloween is one of the four High Holidays, or Greater Sabbats, or cross-quarter days. Because it is the most important holiday of the year, it is sometimes called 'THE Great Sabbat.' It is an ironic fact that the newer, self-created Covens tend to use the older name of the holiday, Samhain, which they have discovered through modern research. While the older hereditary and traditional Covens often use the newer name, Halloween, which has been handed down through oral tradition within their Coven. (This is often holds true for the names of the other holidays, as well. One may often get an indication of a Coven's antiquity by noting what names it uses for the holidays.)

With such an important holiday, Witches often hold two distinct celebrations. First, a large Halloween party for non-Craft friends, often held on the previous weekend. And second, a Coven ritual held on Halloween night itself, late enough so as not to be interrupted by trick-or-treaters. If the rituals are performed properly, there is often the feeling of invisible friends taking part in the rites. Another date which may be utilized in planning celebrations is the actual cross-quarter day, or Old Halloween, or Halloween O.S. (Old Style). This occurs when the sun has reached 15 degrees Scorpio, an astrological 'power point' symbolized by the Eagle. The celebration would begin at sunset. Interestingly, this date (Old Halloween) was also appropriated by the Church as the holiday of Martinmas.

Of all the Witchcraft holidays, Halloween is the only one that still boasts anything near to popular celebration. Even though it is typically relegated to children (and the young-at-heart) and observed as an evening affair only, many of its traditions are firmly rooted in Paganism. Incidentally, some schools have recently attempted to abolish Halloween parties on the grounds that it violates the separation of state and religion. Speaking as a Pagan, I would be saddened by the success of this move, but as a supporter of the concept of religion-free public education, I fear I must concede the point. Nonetheless, it seems only right that there should be one night of the year when our minds are turned toward thoughts of the supernatural. A night when both Pagans and non-Pagans may ponder the mysteries of the Otherworld and its inhabitants. And if you are one of them, may all your jack-o'lanterns burn bright on this All Hallow's Eve.

Document Copyright © 1986, 1998 by Mike Nichols.

Durga Puja

Durga Puja is the greatest Hindu festival in which God is adored as Mother. It is celebrated in the autumn months of September/October. According to the Hindu solar calendar, it falls on the first nine days of the month of Ashvin, in honor of the nine manifestations of Durga. It is the time of the Durga Puja, celebrating the ten-armed goddess of fertility and the third embodiment of the Devi, Durga. It was Durga who vanquished the buffalo-demon Mahishasura.

The festivities start with the first day called Mahalaya. It is also the day of the beginning of the countdown to the Durga Puja, which is celebrated in most households apart from the gaily-decorated puja mandaps that are erected in almost every locality. It is a common belief that Ma Lakshmi brings peace and prosperity to the households that celebrate the puja. People strongly believe that if Ma Lakshmi becomes chanchala or unhappy with a certain household, she tries to leave the place, leaving the owner of the house in a financial mess.

Mahalaya precedes Durga Puja when all the members of the family remember their ancestors. This ritual is called Tarpan. Various shlokas are chanted early in the morning in almost every home as well as in the puja mandaps. The week that follows the Mahalaya is called Debi-pokhsha. The puja actually starts on the day of saptami or the seventh day and goes on till dashami or the tenth day. All mothers keep a fast on sashthi, the day preceding saptami, to pray for the well being of their children. The eighth day or ashtami is a day for vegetarian diet. Sandhi-pujo is also held on that day. Finally, the day of navami arrives which is the last night for the Mother Goddess to stay in her father's home. The next day, the day of dashami, she goes back to her husband's house. People bid a tearful farewell to her and present great barans with candles, fruits and garments.

There are various legends related to Durga Puja. It is believed that in the ancient times, a demon called Mahishasura earned the favor of Lord Shiva after long meditation and prayers. Shiva, pleased with the devotion of the demon, blessed him with a boon that no man or God would be able to kill him. Empowered with the boon, Mahishasura started killing people mercilessly and even drove the Gods out from heaven. The Gods then told Shiva about the atrocities of the demon. Angered by this, Shiva opened his third eye and concentrated the energy coming out of it to form a woman. All the Gods who were present there contributed their share of energy to this Goddess and thus Durga was born. Riding a lion, she attacked Mahishasura and beheaded him. Ironically perhaps, Mahishasura may have founded the Durga Puja when upon learning of his impending demise at the hands of the goddess he, as his last wish, asked the goddess that he too might be worshipped along with her. The goddess granted his wish and since then, the demon is always seen at her feet in three of her forms.

According to a Bengali belief, Daksha, the king of the Himalayas, and his wife Menoka, had a daughter called Uma. Right from her childhood, Uma, started worshipping Lord Shiva as her would be husband. Lord Shiva, pleased with her worship, came to marry her. Daksha did not like this tiger-skin clad groom with ash & dirt spread all over his body. Uma got married to Lord Shiva but was prevented by her father from going to her husband's abode in Mount Kailash. Daksha later organized a yagna where all the Gods were invited except Lord Shiva. Uma, feeling ashamed of the behavior of her father went on fast and finally died. When Lord Shiva came to know of this, he went to Daksha's house, lifted Uma's body on his shoulders and start the dance of destruction called tandav. Due to this dance, the world was on the verge of destruction when Narayana or Lord Vishnu intervened. He used his chakra so that parts of Uma's body fell of the dancing Shiva's shoulder. Shiva was finally pacified when the last piece fell off from his shoulder. Narayana revived Uma and requested Shiva to forgive Daksha. Ever since peace was restored, it is believed that Uma, with her four children, Ganesh, Kartik, Saraswati and Lakshmi and her two sakhis, Jaya and Bijaya, comes to visit her parent's home each year during the season of sharat or autumn when Durga Puja is celebrated.

Another legend has it that Lord Rama went to rescue his abducted wife Sita from the grip of Ravana, the king of the demons in Lanka. Before starting for his battle with Ravana, Rama wanted the blessings of Devi Durga. He came to know that the Goddess would be pleased only if she was offered one hundred neelkamal or blue lotuses. Rama, after traveling the whole world, could gather only ninety-nine. He finally decided to offer one of his eyes, which resembled blue lotuses. Pleased with Rama's devotion, Durga appeared before him and blessed him. The battle started on the saptami and Ravana was finally killed on the sandhikshan i.e. the crossover period between ashtami and navami and was cremated on dashami. Since the period of this worship was different from the conventional festival time of spring or basant, this puja is also known as akal-bodhan or worship (bodhan) in an unconventional time (a-kaal).

Epiphany

Epiphany (Greek epiphaneia,"appearance"), feast celebrated on January 6 by the Anglican, Eastern, and Roman Catholic churches. The feast originated, and is still recognized in the Eastern Church, as the anniversary of the baptism of Christ. In the Western churches, Epiphany commemorates principally the revelation to the Gentiles of Jesus Christ as the Savior, as portrayed by the coming of the Three Wise Men (see Matthew 2:1-12). In both the Eastern and Western churches the feast secondarily commemorates the marriage at Cana (see John 2:1-11), at which Christ performed his first miracle. Epiphany, known to have been observed earlier than AD194, is older than Christmas and has always been a festival of the highest rank. The eve of Epiphany is called Twelfth Night, and the day itself is sometimes referred to as Twelfth Day. In England, the sovereign commemorates the day by offering gold, frankincense, and myrrh at the altar in the Chapel Royal, at Saint James's Palace. In the Eastern church, at Epiphany, the holy water is blessed, a ritual customarily taking place on Holy Saturday (the day before Easter) in the Roman Catholic church.

In Italy is Epiphany or the Twelfth Day. It is a dual celebration in the Catholic Church. The visit of the Magi to Jesus and Jesus' baptism are the two events being celebrated. In the Roman Catholic Church, the visit of the Magi is more stressed than the baptism. New Year's Day is also celebrated in Italy in much the same way it is celebrated here.

Easter

I. Introduction

Easter, annual festival commemorating the resurrection of Jesus Christ, and the principal feast of the Christian year. It is celebrated on a Sunday on varying dates between March 22 and April 25 and is therefore called a movable feast. The dates of several other ecclesiastical festivals, extending over a period between Septuagesima Sunday (the ninth Sunday before Easter) and the first Sunday of Advent, are fixed in relation to the date of Easter.

Connected with the observance of Easter are the 40-day penitential season of Lent, beginning on Ash Wednesday and concluding at midnight on Holy Saturday, the day before Easter Sunday; Holy Week, commencing on Palm Sunday, including Good Friday, the day of the crucifixion, and terminating with Holy Saturday; and the Octave of Easter, extending from Easter Sunday through the following Sunday. During the Octave of Easter in early Christian times, the newly baptized wore white garments, white being the liturgical color of Easter and signifying light, purity, and joy.

II. Pre-Christian Tradition

Easter, a Christian festival, embodies many pre-Christian traditions. The origin of its name is unknown. Scholars, however, accepting the derivation proposed by the 8th-century English scholar St. Bede, believe it probably comes from Eastre, the Anglo-Saxon name of a Teutonic goddess of spring and fertility, to whom was dedicated a month corresponding to April. Her festival was celebrated on the day of the vernal equinox; traditions associated with the festival survive in the Easter rabbit, a symbol of fertility, and in colored easter eggs, originally painted with bright colors to represent the sunlight of spring, and used in Easter-egg rolling contests or given as gifts.

Such festivals, and the stories and legends that explain their origin, were common in ancient religions. A Greek legend tells of the return of Persephone, daughter of Demeter, goddess of the earth, from the underworld to the light of day; her return symbolized to the ancient Greeks the resurrection of life in the spring after the desolation of winter. Many ancient peoples shared similar legends. The Phrygians believed that their omnipotent deity went to sleep at the time of the winter solstice, and they performed ceremonies with music and dancing at the spring equinox to awaken him. The Christian festival of Easter probably embodies a number of converging traditions; most scholars emphasize the original relation of Easter to the Jewish festival of Passover, or Pesach, from which is derived Pasch, another name for Easter. The early Christians, many of whom were of Jewish origin, were brought up in the Hebrew tradition and regarded Easter as a new feature of the Passover festival, a commemoration of the advent of the Messiah as foretold by the prophets.

III. The Dating of Easter

According to the New Testament, Christ was crucified on the eve of Passover and shortly afterward rose from the dead. In consequence, the Easter festival commemorated Christ's resurrection. In time, a serious difference over the date of the Easter festival arose among Christians. Those of Jewish origin celebrated the resurrection immediately following the Passover festival, which, according to their Babylonian lunar calendar, fell on the evening of the full moon (the 14th day in the month of Nisan, the first month of the year); by their reckoning, Easter, from year to year, fell on different days of the week.

Christians of Gentile origin, however, wished to commemorate the resurrection on the first day of the week, Sunday; by their method, Easter occurred on the same day of the week, but from year to year it fell on different dates.

An important historical result of the difference in reckoning the date of Easter was that the Christian churches in the East, which were closer to the birthplace of the new religion and in which old traditions were strong, observed Easter according to the date of the Passover festival. The churches of the West, descendants of Greco-Roman civilization, celebrated Easter on a Sunday.

IV. Rulings of the Council of Nicaea on the Date of Easter

Constantine the Great, Roman emperor, convoked the Council of Nicaea in 325. The council unanimously ruled that the Easter festival should be celebrated throughout the Christian world on the first Sunday after the full moon following the vernal equinox; and that if the full moon should occur on a Sunday and thereby coincide with the Passover festival, Easter should be commemorated on the Sunday following. Coincidence of the feasts of Easter and Passover was thus avoided.

The Council of Nicaea also decided that the calendar date of Easter was to be calculated at Alexandria, then the principal astronomical center of the world. The accurate determination of the date, however, proved an impossible task in view of the limited knowledge of the 4th-century world. The principal astronomical problem involved was the discrepancy, called the epact, between the solar year and the lunar year. The chief calendric problem was a gradually increasing discrepancy between the true astronomical year and the Julian calendar then in use.

V. Later Dating Methods

Ways of fixing the date of the feast tried by the church proved unsatisfactory, and Easter was celebrated on different dates in different parts of the world. In 387, for example, the dates of Easter in France and Egypt were 35 days apart. About 465, the church adopted a system of calculation proposed by the astronomer Victorinus (flourished 5th century), who had been commissioned by Pope Hilarius to reform the calendar and fix the date of Easter. Elements of his method are still in use, although the Scythian monk Dionysius Exiguus made significant adjustments to the Easter cycle in the 6th century. Refusal of the British and Celtic Christian churches to adopt the proposed changes led to a bitter dispute between them and Rome in the 7th century.

Reform of the Julian calendar in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII, through adoption of the Gregorian calendar, eliminated much of the difficulty in fixing the date of Easter and in arranging the ecclesiastical year; since 1752, when the Gregorian calendar was also adopted in Great Britain and Ireland, Easter has been celebrated on the same day in the Western part of the Christian world. The Eastern churches, however, which did not adopt the Gregorian calendar, commemorate Easter on a Sunday either preceding or following the date observed in the West. Occasionally the dates coincide; the most recent times were in 1865 and 1963.

Because the Easter holiday affects a varied number of secular affairs in many countries, it has long been urged as a matter of convenience that the movable dates of the festival be either narrowed in range or replaced by a fixed date in the manner of Christmas. In 1923 the problem was referred to the Holy See, which has found no canonical objection to the proposed reform. In 1928 the British Parliament enacted a measure allowing the Church of England to commemorate Easter on the first Sunday after the second Saturday in April. Despite these steps toward reform, Easter continues to be a movable feast.

Feast of Fools

FOOLS, FEAST OF (Lat.festum stultorum, fatuorum, follorum, Fr. fe~Ie des fous), the name for certain burlesque quasi-religious festivals which, during the middle ages, were the ecclesiastical counterpart of the secular revelries of the Lord of Misrule. The celebrations are directly traceable to the pagan Saturnalia of ancient Rome, which in spite of the conversion, of the Empire to Christianity, and of the cl~nunciation of bishops and ecclesiastical councils, continued to be celebrated by the people on the Kalends of January with all their old licence. The custom; indeed, so far from dying out, was adopted by the barbarian conquerors and spread among the Christian Goths in Spain, Franks in Gaul, Alemanni in Germany, and Anglo-Saxons in Britain. So late as the 11th century Bishop Burchard of Worms thOught it necessary to fulminate against the excesses connected with it (Decretuin, xix. c. 5, Migne, Patrologia let. 140, p. 965). Then, just as it appears to have been sinking into oblivion among the people, the clergy themselves gave it the character of a specific religious festival. Certain days seem early to have been set apart as special festivals for different orders of the clergy: the feast of St Stephen (December 26) for the deacons, St Johns day (December 27) fof the priests, Holy Innocents Day for the boys, and for the sub-deacons Circumcision, the Epiphany, or the 11th of January. The Feast of Holy Innocents became a regular festival of children, in which a boy, elected by his fellows of the choir school, functioned solemnly as bishop or archbishop, surrounded by the elder choir-boys as his clergy, while the canons and other clergy took the humbler seats. At first there is no evidence to prove that these celebrations were characterized by any specially indecorous behaviour; but in the 12th century such behaviour had become the rule. In IiSo Jean Beleth,, of the diocese of Amiens, calls the festival of the sub-deacons festum stultorum (Migne, Patrol, let. 202, p. 7~).

The burlesque ritual which characterized the Feast of Fools throughout the middle ages was now at its height. A young sub-deacon was elected bishop, vested in the episcopal insignia (except the mitre) and conducted by his fellows to the sanctuary. A mock mass was begun, during which the lections were read cum farsia, obscene songs were sung and dances performed, cakes and sausages eaten at the altar, and cards and dice played upon it.

This burlesquing of things universally held sacred, thOugh condemned by serious-minded theologians, conveyed to the child-like popular mind of the middle ages no suggestion of contempt, though when belief in the doctrines and rites of the medieval Church was shaken it became a ready instrument in the hands of those who sought to destroy them. Of this kind of retribution Scott in Tile Abbot gives a vivid picture, the Protestants interrupting the mass celebrated by the trembling remnant of the monks in the ruined abbey church, and insisting on substituting the traditional Feast of Fools.

This naive temper of the middle ages is nowhere more conspicuously display~d than in the Feast of the Ass, which under various forms was celebrated in a large number of churches throughout the \Vest. The ass had been introduced into the ritual of the church in the 9th century, representing either Balaams ass, that which stood with the ox beside the manger at Bethlehem, that which carriedthe Holy Family into Egypt, or that on which Christ rode in triumph into Jerusalem. Often the ass was a mere incident in the Feast of Fools; but sOmetimes he was the occasion of a special festival, ridiculous enough to modern notions, but by no means intended in an irreverent spirit. The three most notable celebrations of the Feast of the Ass were at Rouen, Beauvais and Sens. At Rouen the feast was celebrated on Christmas Day, and was intended to represent the times before the coming of Christ. The service opened with a procession of Old Testament characters, prophets, patriarchs and kings, together with heathen prophets, including Virgil, the chief figure being Balaam on his ass~ The ass was a hollow wooden effigy, within which a priest capered and uttered prophecies. The procession was followed, inside the church, by a curious combination of ritual office and mystery play, the text of which, according to the Ordo processionis asinoruin secundum Rothomagensem usum, is given in Du Cange.

Far more singular was the celebration at Beauvais, which was held on the i4th of January, and represented the flight into Egypt. A richly caparisoned ass, on which was seated the prettiest girl in the town holding in her arms a baby or a large doll, was escorted with much pomp from the cathedral to the church of St Etienne. There the procession was received by the priests, who led the ass and its burden to the sanctuary. Mass was then sung; but instead of the ordinary responses to the Introit, Kyrie, Gloria, &c., the congregation chanted Hinham (Hee-haw) three times. The rubric of the mass for~ this east actually runs: In fine Missae Sacerdos versus ad populurn vice, Ite missa est, Hinhannabit: populus vero vice, Dco Gratias, ter respondebil Hinham, Hinham, Hinham (At the close of the mass the priest turning to the people instead of saying, Ite misscr est, shall bray thrice: the people, instead of Deo gratias, shall thrice respond Hee-haw, Hee-haw, Hee-haw).

At Sens the Feast of the Ass was associated with the Feast of Fools, celebrated at Vespers on the Feast of Circumcision. The clergy went in procession to the west door of the church, where two canons received the ass, amid joyous chants, and led it to the precentors table. Bizarre vespers followed, sung falsetto and consisting of a medley of extracts from all the vespers of the year. Between the lessons the ass was ~olemnly fed, and at the conclusion of the service was led by the precentor out into the square before the church (conductus ad hsdos); water was poured on the precentors head, and the ass became the centre of burlesque ceremonies, dancing and buffoonery being carried on far into the night, while the clergy and the serious-minded retired to matins and bed.

Various efforts were made during the middle ages to abolish the Feast of Fools. Thus in 1198 the chapter of Paris suppressed its more obvious indecencies; in 1210 Pope Innocent III. forbade the feasts of priests, deacons and sub-deacons altogether; and in 1246 Innocent IV. threatened those who disobeyed this prohibition with excommunication. How little effect this had~ however, is shown by the fact that in 1265 Odo, archbishop of Sens, could do no more than prohibit the obscene excesses of the feast, -without abolishing the feast itself; that in I444 the university of Paris, at the request of certain bishops, addressed a letter condemning it to all cathedral chapters; and that King Charles VII. found it necessary to order all masters in theology to forbid it in collegiate churches. The festival was, in fact, too popular to succumb to these efforts, and it survived through- out Europe till the Reformation, and even later in France; for in 1645 Mathurin de Neur complains in a letter to Pierre Gassendi of the monstrous fooleries which yearly on Innocents Day took place in the monastery of the Cordeliers at Antibes. Never did pagans, he writes, solemnize with such extravagance their superstitious festivals as do they . . . . The laybrothers, the cabbage-cutters, those who work in the kitchen... occupy the places of the clergy in the church. They don the~ sa~erdotal garments, reverse side out. They hold in their hands books turned upside down, and pretend to read through speetacles in which for glass have been substituted bits of orange-peel.

See B. Picart, Cr~monies et coututnes religleuses de tous les peuples (1723); du Tilliot, Mimoires pour servir a lhistoire de la fte des Fous (Lausanne, 1741); A!m Cherest, Nouvelles recherches sur la fte des Innocents et la fte des Fous thins plusleurs glises et notamment dans ceile de Sens (Paris, 1853); Schneegans in Mullers Zeitschrifl fr deutsche Kulturgeschichte (1858); H. Bhmer, art. Narrenfest in Herzog-Hauck, Realencykiop. (ed 1903); Du Cange, Glossarium (ed. I 884), s.c. Festum Asinorum.

May Day

May Day, name popularly given to the first day of May, which for centuries has been celebrated among European peoples. May Day festivals probably stem from the rites practiced in honor of Flora, the Roman goddess of spring. May Day is currently celebrated as a festival for children marking the reappearance of flowers during the spring. It is traditionally greeted with joyous dancing around a garlanded pole, called a maypole, from which hang streamers held by the dancers. May Day is also celebrated in many European countries as a labor holiday, comparable to Labor Day in the United States. It was especially significant in the Soviet Union and other Communist countries. Observance of the holiday by some workers in Europe and the U.S. probably dates from the celebration of May Day by the first congress (1889) of the Second International, an assembly of socialist and labor parties.

Flora, in Roman mythology, goddess of flowers and springtime. Her festival, the Floralia, was licentious in spirit and featured dramatic spectacles and animal hunts in the Circus Maximus. Flora was represented as a beautiful maiden, wearing a crown of flowers.

Maypoles Mayday is one of the few festivals that still exists in its own right and has not been swamped by a Christian festival placed on the same date in an effort to hide its origin. May day in most peoples eyes in the UK is the "new" bank holiday that was given during the years of Harold Wilson's term as the Prime Minster of Parliament I believe that May of 1975 was the first May Day holiday in the UK.

Mayday was a custom that marked an important seasonal transition in the year.

Putting a maypole up involved all the village taking a growing tree from the wood, and bringing the tree into the village to decorated in flowers and leaves to mark the season summer oncoming season of the summer.

Mayday used to be a period of great sexual licence. People would go off into the woods to collect their trees and green boughs, but once there, would enter into all sorts of temporary sexual liaisons which society did not normally accept.

Mayday as such no longer is held in this form as during the 1700 century Mayday became under attack from the Puritans and was eventually banned by Parliament in 1644 the section was called "Against May".

Mayday did return with the restoration of Charles the second in 1660, but it didn't have the same theme. It had the same old image, but the sexual elements dis-appeared. During the nineteenth century, the Victorians overlayed a moral tone on the festival, emphasising its innocence. Instead of being a celebration of fertility, it turned into a kind of commemoration of Merry England. The girls taking part now wore white and held posies.

Mayday as already mention was one of the most important days of the festival of the yester year now we are lucky if we see any of the old customs and traditions that go along with May Day. May was called "Maia" in honour of the goddess of growth by the Romans and by the Saxons "Thrimilci" which means simply the month in which cows can be milked 3 times a day. The Saxon s association with May and milk that the 'Milk Maids Dance' may have its origins.

The 'milk maids' would rise early in the morning on the first day of May and after carrying out some ritual ablutions would then dance in the streets of their village or town with as many milk containers as they could carry.

The Celts called the first day of May BELTANE which was called this as the Celts lit bonfires on the first day of May the meaning of which means BEL = bright or goodly TAN = fire, the Celtic May Day. It officially begins at moonrise on May Day Eve, and marks the beginning o+f the third quarter or second half of the ancient Celtic year. It is celebrated as an early pastoral festival accompanying the first turning of the herds out to wild pasture.

The rituals were held to promote fertility. The cattle were driven between the Belfires to protect them from ills. Contact with the fire was interpreted as symbolic contact with the sun.

The rowan branch is hung over the house fire on May Day to preserve the fire itself from bewitchment (the house fire being symbolic of the luck of the house.

In early Celtic times, the druids kindled the Beltane fires with specific incantations. Later the Christian church took over the Beltane observances, a service was held in the church, followed by a procession to the fields or hills,

It would appear that St Anne's Well Rd in Nottingham at the top was such a place where this took place, there is a well on St Anne's Well Rd hence the name but the true meaning of St Anne's Well is San meaning holy Tan meaning fire the words have been corrupted with time.

Another custom associated with the first day of May was the wide spread custom of couples to go off together into the woods on the May eve "there to make merrie sport"..

The Maypole was the focal point of many of the customs of May Day where the local villages would dance, along with the Morris Dancers. The Maypole its self would have been quite large as some old pictures show, but during the 1888 a shorter pole was introduced of which there are still some to be seen Nottingham only has one surviving permanent Maypole of any antiquity The following places had a Maypole

• Bradmore (Church SK5843115) Last known 1792
  
• Boughton (Church SK 67856850) Last Known 1585
  
• Clifton (Pole SK 54703476) Last known 1945
  
• Farnsfield (Church SK 6455650) Last Known 1834
  
• Gedling (Church SK 61814258) last known 1869
  
• Gotham (Square SK 53603009) Last known 1937
  
• Linby (Pole SK 53425099) Last known 1922
  
• North Wheatley (Church SK 76198590) Last known 1884
  
• Nottingham (Pole SK 57344008) Last Known 1780
  (This is the site of the Old Corner Pin pub)
  
• Stapleford (Pole SK 48903735) Last known 1810
  
• Wellow (Pole SK 66956620) Still remaining
  
• Woodborough (Pole SK 63504775) Last known 1979

As can be seen from the above many of the Maypoles where located very close to the village church, the church did not approve of the Maypole as it was an emblem of a yester year of the Pagan religion. Many of the Maypoles where destroyed by the church, in one way or another till this day there are few Maypoles left.

Mayday was and in some why's still is a popular custom, a people's day so it is not unatural that the Labour and socialist movements treated this day as part of the socialist calendar. It's only recently that the state has recognised May Day as a bank holiday (Re introduced by Haraold Wilson PM) for the first time since it had royal support back in the Elizabethan court, and there's been a big battle over this May Day which was seized upon by the Right as something foreign and left-wing.

Halloween

I. Introduction

Halloween, holiday observed on the evening of October 31 in most areas of North America and in some areas of Western Europe. The holiday is symbolically associated with death and the supernatural. Halloween falls on the eve of All Saints' Day, also known as Allhallows or Hallowmas, a holy day in the Roman Catholic and Anglican churches. Originally a pagan festival of the dead, All Saints' Day was established by the Catholic Church in the 9th century to honor Christian saints. All Souls' Day, a holy day established by the Catholic Church in the 10th century, is also closely linked to Halloween. All Souls' Day, on November 2, is observed to help purify the spirits of the dead.

Halloween is historically related to similar folk holidays celebrated in other countries. The Day of the Dead, a Mexican holiday that coincides with All Souls' Day, blends Roman Catholic and Native American traditions about the souls of the dead. On the Day of the Dead, Mexicans decorate their homes with playful imagery of animated human skeletons, leave offerings of food for wandering spirits, and tend the graves of their deceased relatives. In England, Guy Fawkes' Day, celebrated on November 5, has largely taken the place of Halloween. On this patriotic holiday, children light bonfires and burn effigies of Guy Fawkes, a conspirator who tried to blow up the English Parliament building in 1605.

II. Contemporary Customs

Most Halloween festivities are based on folk beliefs concerning supernatural forces and spirits of the dead. Halloween decorations typically feature imagery associated with supernatural beings such as witches, werewolves, vampires, and ghosts. Images thought to symbolize bad omens—such as black cats, bats, and spiders—are also commonly featured in Halloween decorations.

The most celebrated Halloween decoration is the jack-o'-lantern, traditionally a hollowed-out pumpkin carved to resemble a grotesque face and illuminated by a candle placed inside. The jack-o'-lantern derives its name from a character in British folktales. According to these tales, the soul of a deceased person named Jack O'Lantern was barred from both heaven and hell and was condemned to wander the earth with his lantern. Orange and black, colors associated with pumpkins and darkness respectively, figure prominently in most Halloween decorations.

Dressing in costume is one of the most popular Halloween customs, especially among children. Traditional costumes usually represent witches, ghosts, and other supernatural beings. However, costumes inspired by contemporary popular culture, such as politicians or movie characters, have become increasingly common in recent years. Adults often favor costumes with satirical or humorous overtones.

Trick-or-treating is another Halloween tradition, in which costumed children go from house to house soliciting candy or other treats from their neighbors. According to this custom, children greet each homeowner with the cry "Trick or Treat," suggesting that some sort of prank will be played unless treats are provided. Formerly, trick-or-treaters vandalized the house if no treats were produced or if the treats met with their disapproval. Since the early 20th century, however, the threat of tricks has been largely ceremonial. Beginning in the 1970s, the practice of trick-or-treating went into a sharp decline after unsubstantiated rumors spread about homeowners distributing poisoned Halloween candy to children. Many parents also became concerned about their children wandering through the neighborhood after dark. Today, many parents accompany children when they go trick-or-treating.

In some areas of the country, costume parties have replaced trick-or-treating as the favored form of Halloween entertainment. Hosts of these parties often hold contests to select the best costume among the guests. Traditional Halloween diversions have also enjoyed renewed popularity as party activities. For example, many Halloween parties feature contests of bobbing for apples, a centuries-old game in which contestants try to retrieve apples floating in a tub of water using only their mouth. While children's Halloween parties are generally held in private homes, many bars and nightclubs sponsor modified versions of such festivities for adults.

III. Origins

Many of the ancient peoples of Europe marked the end of the harvest season and the beginning of winter by celebrating a holiday in late autumn. The most important of these holidays to influence later Halloween customs was Samhain, a holiday observed by the ancient Celts, a tribal people who inhabited most of Western and Central Europe in the first millennium BC. Among the Celts, Samhain marked the end of one year and the beginning of the next. It was one of four Celtic holidays linked to important transitions in the annual cycle of seasons.

Samhain began at sundown on October 31 and extended into the following day. According to the Celtic pagan religion, known as Druidism, the spirits of those who had died in the preceding year roamed the earth on Samhain evening. The Celts sought to ward off these spirits with offerings of food and drink. The Celts also built bonfires at sacred hilltop sites and performed rituals, often involving human and animal sacrifices, to honor Druid deities.

By the end of the 1st century AD, the Roman Empire had conquered most of the Celtic lands (see Rome, History of). In the process of incorporating the Celts into their empire, the Romans adapted and absorbed some Celtic traditions as part of their own pagan and Catholic religious observances. In Britain, Romans blended local Samhain customs with their own pagan harvest festival honoring Pomona, goddess of fruit trees. Some scholars have suggested that the game of bobbing for apples derives from this Roman association of the holiday with fruit.

Pure Celtic influences lingered longer on the western fringes of Europe, especially in areas that were never brought firmly under Roman control, such as Ireland, Scotland, and the Brittany region of northwestern France. In these areas, Samhain was abandoned only when the local people converted to Christianity during the early Middle Ages, a period that lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. The Roman Catholic Church often incorporated modified versions of older religious traditions in order to win converts. For example, Pope Gregory IV sought to replace Samhain with All Saints' Day in 835. All Souls' Day, closer in spirit to Samhain and modern Halloween, was first instituted at a French monastery in 998 and quickly spread throughout Europe. Folk observances linked to these Christian holidays, including Halloween, thus preserved many of the ancient Celtic customs associated with Samhain.

Halloween traditions thought to be incompatible with Christianity often became linked with Christian folk beliefs about evil spirits. Although such superstitions varied a great deal from place to place, many of the supernatural beings now associated with Halloween became fixed in the popular imagination during the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance (14th to 17th century). In British folklore, small magical beings known as fairies became associated with Halloween mischief. The jack-o'-lantern, originally carved from a large turnip rather than a pumpkin, originated in medieval Scotland. Various methods of predicting the future, especially concerning matters of romance and marriage, were also prominent features of Halloween throughout the British Isles.

Between the 15th and 17th centuries, Europe was seized by a hysterical fear of witches, leading to the persecution of thousands of innocent women. Witches were thought to ride flying brooms and to assume the form of black cats. These images of witches soon joined other European superstitions as symbols of Halloween.

IV. In the United States

Attitudes toward Halloween varied widely among the various European groups that settled in North America. New England was initially settled by English Puritans, members of a strict Protestant sect that rejected Halloween as a Catholic and pagan holiday (see Puritanism). However, other British colonists successfully transplanted Halloween traditions in southern colonies such as Virginia and Maryland. Irish immigrants helped popularize Halloween traditions throughout the United States in the mid-19th century. As belief in many of the old superstitions waned during the late 19th century, Halloween was increasingly regarded as a children's holiday.

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, young people often observed Halloween by perpetrating minor acts of vandalism, such as overturning sheds or breaking windows. Beginning in the 1930s, Halloween mischief gradually transformed into the modern ritual of trick-or-treating. Eventually, Halloween treats were plentiful while tricks became rare. Nonetheless, the tradition of Halloween pranks still survives. In some areas, October 30 (one day before Halloween) is called Mischief Night, and vandalism often reaches dangerous levels. In Detroit, Michigan, Mischief Night—known there as Devil's Night—provided the occasion for waves of arson that sometimes destroyed whole city blocks during the 1970s and 1980s.

Since the 1970s, Halloween celebrations have become increasingly popular among adults. The Halloween parade in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of New York City features elaborate satirical costumes and drunken revelry. Especially popular among the local gay population, the Greenwich Village parade serves as a model for many other adult Halloween celebrations around the country. Similarly boisterous public Halloween festivities are celebrated in San Francisco, California; New Orleans, Louisiana; and Key West, Florida.

All Saints' Day, also Allhallows or Hallowmas, festival celebrated on November 1 in the Roman Catholic and Anglican churches, and by the Orthodox churches on the first Sunday after Pentecost, in honor of God and all his saints, known and unknown. It became established as a church festival early in the 7th century when the Pantheon in Rome was consecrated as the Church of the Blessed Virgin and All Martyrs. Pope Gregory IV gave the custom official authorization in 835. November 1 may have been chosen because it was the day of one of the four great festivals of the pagan nations of the north, and it was church policy to supplant pagan with Christian observances.

All Souls' Day, in the Roman Catholic church, a festival falling on November 2, the object of which is, by prayers and almsgiving, to assist souls in purgatory. First instituted in the monasteries of Cluny, France, in 998, the observance soon became general, without any ordinance at large on the subject. Among European peasants, All Souls' Day is a time for reviving many pre-Christian folk customs. Roman Catholic priests are permitted to say three masses for the dead on this day.

Halloween is celebrated annually. But just how and when did this peculiar custom originate? Is it, as some claim, a kind of demon worship? Or is it just a harmless vestige of some ancient pagan ritual?

The word itself, "Halloween," actually has its origins in the Catholic Church. It comes from a contracted corruption of All Hallows Eve. November 1, "All Hollows Day" (or "All Saints Day"), is a Catholic day of observance in honor of saints. But, in the 5th century BC, in Celtic Ireland, summer officially ended on October 31. The holiday was called Samhain (sow-en), the Celtic New year.

One story says that, on that day, the disembodied spirits of all those who had died throughout the preceding year would come back in search of living bodies to possess for the next year. It was believed to be their only hope for the afterlife, (Panati). The Celts believed all laws of space and time were suspended during this time, allowing the spirit world to intermingle with the living, (Gahagan).

Naturally, the still-living did not want to be possessed. So on the night of October 31, villagers would extinguish the fires in their homes, to make them cold and undesirable. They would then dress up in all manner of ghoulish costumes and noisily paraded around the neighborhood, being as destructive as possible in order to frighten away spirits looking for bodies to possess, (Panati).

Probably a better explanation of why the Celts extinguished their fires was not to discourage spirit possession, but so that all the Celtic tribes could relight their fires from a common source, the Druidic fire that was kept burning in the Middle of Ireland, at Usinach, (Gahagan).

Some accounts tell of how the Celts would burn someone at the stake who was thought to have already been possessed, as sort of a lesson to the spirits, (Panati). Other accounts of Celtic history debunk these stories as myth, (Gahagan).

The Romans adopted the Celtic practices as their own. But in the first century AD, they abandoned any practice of sacrificing of humans in favor of burning effigies.

The thrust of the practices also changed over time to become more ritualized. As belief in spirit possession waned, the practice of dressing up like hobgoblins, ghosts, and witches took on a more ceremonial role.

The custom of Halloween was brought to America in the 1840's by Irish immigrants fleeing their country's potato famine. At that time, the favorite pranks in New England included tipping over outhouses and unhinging fence gates, (Panati).

The custom of trick-or-treating is thought to have originated not with the Irish Celts, but with a ninth-century European custom called souling. On November 2, All Souls Day, early Christians would walk from village to village begging for "soul cakes," made out of square pieces of bread with currants. The more soul cakes the beggars would receive, the more prayers they would promise to say on behalf of the dead relatives of the donors. At the time, it was believed that the dead remained in limbo for a time after death, and that prayer, even by strangers, could expedite a soul's passage to heaven.

The Jack-o-lantern custom probably comes from Irish folklore. As the tale is told, a man named Jack, who was notorious as a drunkard and trickster, tricked Satan into climbing a tree. Jack then carved an image of a cross in the tree's trunk, trapping the devil up the tree. Jack made a deal with the devil that, if he would never tempt him again, he would promise to let him down the tree.

According to the folk tale, after Jack died, he was denied entrance to Heaven because of his evil ways, but he was also denied access to Hell because he had tricked the devil. Instead, the devil gave him a single ember to light his way through the frigid darkness. The ember was placed inside a hollowed-out turnip to keep it glowing longer.

The Irish used turnips as their "Jack's lanterns" originally. But when the immigrants came to America, they found that pumpkins were far more plentiful than turnips. So the Jack-O-Lantern in America was a hollowed-out pumpkin, lit with an ember.

So, although some cults and Satanists may have adopted Halloween as their favorite "holiday," the day itself did not grow out of evil practices. It grew out of the rituals of Celts celebrating a new year, and out of Medieval prayer rituals of Europeans. And today, it is only as evil as one cares to make it. There are actually 3 holidays that take place at this time.
Two are Catholic holidays that were to provide an alternative to the pagan holiday/tradition of Samhain.
Oct 31 - All Hallows Eve and Samhain
Nov 1 - All Hallows or Saint Day Nov 1 to honor dead martyrs of the Faith
Nov 2 - All Souls Day was to pray for people to get out of purgatory

All Hallowed Day was mainly started to provide an alternative or substitution to newly converted Christians so they wouldn't take part of the ocultic practices that took place the night before. Witches and pagans saw it as a joke and mocked GOD and the church even more...

The term halloween comes from the phrase All Hallows Evening the night before All Hallows Day. If you drop the All the S, V, and the ing what do you have? Halloween

Origins

Halloween as we know it wasn't celebrated in the USA until mid 1800's The traditions are believed to have been brought over by the Irish and Italians. Then Ancient Druids in the British Isle were the first to celebrate the traditions of Halloween as we know it and most of the symbols and traditions came from their practices. The Druids were the priestly class of the Celtic/pagan religion. They worship nature and mother earth and other nature deities. like trees and animals. They celebrated what is called Samhain by the Celtic. Samhain was one of their gods…called the lord of death. Also know as the Grim Reaper in modern day. It was to celebrate the summer end and the beginning of winter it was their New Year. It was said that the wall to the spirit world was the thinnest on this night. They believe that Samhain gathered the souls condemned to be live as animals because of their sins. They would offer sacrifices often, human sacrifices, usually criminals to make Samhain happy so he would consider sparing their relatives. They also had huge bonfires and chanted, cast spells and looked at the ashes and the movements of dying human sacrifices to tell future of how the year would be. They also believe that the dead could return to the land of the living and celebrate with their families. Often gravesites were dug up so the dead could find their way home. Similar, customs and beliefs were practiced by native Americans and the Egyptians during this time period.

Costumes

The tradition of costumes and dressing up came from the druids believe that evil spirits roamed the earth during Samhain casting spells and Tricks on people. They believe they had to dress up with animals skins and animal heads to deceive them into thinking they were one of them to scare them away.

Trick or Treat

This came from the believe that if you set food or fruit out on your door step and offer shelter for the night the spirits would pass you by and not cast spells and cause damage to your house and family. The druids were recorded to go around and collect the food and would burn it as a sacrifice to their gods. They also would burn houses or castrate the males of the house if someone didn't provide a treat.

Jack O Lantern

Jack O Lanterns are ancient symbol of condemned souls. The story originated from a guy named Jack that supposedly tricked the devil. The story goes that Jack tricked the devil to chase him up a tree and then Jack jumped out of the tree and mounted his crucifix so the devil could not get down. Because of this he was condemned to roam the earth because neither Heaven or hell would take him when he died. Jack then put an ember that the devil through at him from hell inside of a pumpkin or gorge, and used it as a lantern to see.

It also was a symbol used by the druids and pagans to determine who agreed with them and deserved mercy from the Tricks. Hallowed out gores and skulls were/are used by witches as a lantern for their rituals today.

Black Cats

Were considered once humans that were condemned to live as cats. They also were thought of as witches in disguise. Or, as familiar spirits.

Bobbing for Apples

This came from the Roman goddess of fruit trees. She was symbolized by the apple. The bobbing part was actual part of a ritual baptism. Apples were used in other deviation rituals to determine marriage and other various things.

Conclusion

Something to realize is that the traditions of Samhain are practiced by modern day pagans. It is one of the 4 High holidays of witches and is valued the Great sabbet. Most modern pagans perform their rituals late on halloween night after kids have gone to bed. On halloween there are more reported cases of kidnapping then any other night. As Christians we need to realize that the customs of Halloween do not and can not give glory to God. Their goal is to give glory to satan!

Mysteries (ancient rituals)

Mysteries (ancient rituals), secret rites and ceremonies connected with various religious worships of ancient Greece and Rome. These rites and ceremonies were known to, and practiced by, congregations of men and women who had been duly initiated; no other persons were allowed to participate. The origin and purpose of the mysteries are unknown. The theory that the mysteries concealed deep truths and remnants of a primitive revelation too profound for the popular mind is no longer believed, but undoubtedly the sacred rituals brought to the initiates secret religious doctrines, which in many instances were concerned with the continuance of life beyond the grave. The mysteries consisted of purifications, sacrificial offerings, processions, songs, dances, and dramatic performances. Often the birth, suffering, death, and resurrection of a god were enacted in dramatic form. The aim of the mysteries seems to have been twofold, namely, to give comfort and moral instruction for life on earth, and to inspire hope for life after death.

The earliest and most important Greek mysteries were the Orphic, the Eleusinian, and the Dionysiac. The Orphic mysteries were those of a mystic cult founded, according to tradition, by the legendary poet and musician Orpheus, to whom was attributed a great mass of religious literature (see Orphism ck below). Far more celebrated were the Eleusinian mysteries,(ck below) connected with the worship of the goddesses Demeter and Persephone at Eleusis in Attica; with these divinities were associated Pluto, god of the underworld; Iacchus, a name of the youthful Dionysus, god of vegetation and of wine; and other gods. The worship of Dionysus, or Bacchus, at Athens was accompanied by feasts, processions, and musical and dramatic performances. In later times the mysteries associated with Dionysus became occasions for intoxication and gross licentiousness. They were forbidden at Thebes and later elsewhere in Greece. As the Bacchanalia these rites were introduced into Rome early in the 2nd century BC. At first the mysteries were celebrated only by women; when they were opened to men, the gatherings were suspected of gross immoralities, and in 186 BC the Roman Senate attempted to suppress the rites by decree.

Secret rites were a part of the worship of several Greek deities, such as Hera, queen of the gods, Aphrodite, goddess of love, and Hecate, goddess of the underworld. Many foreign religions adopted by the Greeks and Romans had mysteries connected with the worship of the divinity; these religions included the worship of the Phrygian goddess Cybele, the "great mother" of the gods; the Egyptian Isis, goddess of the moon, nature, and fertility; and the Persian Mithras, god of the sun. The worship of these deities spread throughout the Greco-Roman world and was extremely popular in the early centuries of the Roman Empire. Isis, who at an early date had been identified with Demeter, was worshiped in Italy as late as the 5th century AD.

Orphism

Orphism, in classical religion, mystic cult of ancient Greece, believed to have been drawn from the writings of the legendary poet and musician Orpheus. Fragmentary poetic passages, including inscriptions on gold tablets found in the graves of Orphic followers from the 6th century BC, indicate that Orphism was based on a cosmogony that centered on the myth of the god Dionysus Zagreus, the son of the deities Zeus and Persephone. Furious because Zeus wished to make his son ruler of the universe, the jealous Titans dismembered and devoured the young god. Athena, goddess of wisdom, was able to rescue his heart, which she brought to Zeus, who swallowed it and gave birth to a new Dionysus. Zeus then punished the Titans by destroying them with his lightning and from their ashes created the human race. As a result, humans had a dual nature: the earthly body was the heritage of the earth-born Titans; the soul came from the divinity of Dionysus, whose remains had been mingled with that of the Titans.

According to the tenets of Orphism, people should endeavor to rid themselves of the Titanic or evil element in their nature and should seek to preserve the Dionysiac or divine nature of their being. The triumph of the Dionysiac element would be assured by following the Orphic rites of purification and asceticism. Through a long series of reincarnated lives, people would prepare for the afterlife. If they had lived in evil, they would be punished, but if they had lived in holiness, after death their souls would be completely liberated from Titanic elements and reunited with the divinity.

Eleusinian Mysteries

Eleusinian Mysteries, sacred rituals that were the most important of the religious festivals in ancient Greece. Like the Eleusinia, a biennial festival in honor of the Greek divinities Demeter and Persephone, the Eleusinian mysteries derived their name from the town of Elevsís, in Attica, near Athens. Long before the rise of Athens, the people of Elevsís observed the mysteries, which were subsequently adopted by Athens as an official festival. The Eleusinian priesthood was retained in charge. The most important part of the festival, the initiation of the candidates, took place every year for centuries in the Telesterion at Elevsís. This initiation climaxed a series of rituals that began early in the spring with the celebration of the Lesser Mysteries at Agrae, near Athens. At that time the mystoe, the candidates for the first of four stages in the revelation of the mysteries, were told the legend of Demeter and Persephone, the latter of whom was referred to as Kore (Greek, "the maiden"). Purification rites were also part of the ceremony of the Lesser Mysteries. The autumn ceremonies, called the Greater Mysteries, began with the fetching of sacred objects from Elevsís to Athens by youths known as ephebi. The ceremonies included an address by a priest to the candidates, a cleansing in the sea, a sacrificial rite, and a great procession from Athens to Elevsís, where the initiation occurred in secret ceremonies.

It is believed that the tale of Demeter's search through the underworld for her daughter Persephone, which was probably enacted at the initiation, was related to the seeking after immortality and happiness in a future world, the presumed purpose of the ceremonies. The Eleusinian mysteries were probably celebrated until the 4th century AD, when Alaric I, king of the Visigoths, destroyed Elevsís. Near the village of Lefsina, on the site of Elevsís, modern archaeologists have found the remains of the Telesterion and other sacred buildings.

Demeter

Demeter, in Greek mythology, goddess of grain and the harvest, and daughter of the Titans Cronus and Rhea. When her daughter Persephone was abducted by Hades, god of the underworld, Demeter's grief was so great that she neglected the land; no plants grew, and famine devastated the earth. Dismayed at this situation, Zeus, the ruler of the universe, demanded that his brother Hades return Persephone to her mother. Hades agreed, but before he released the girl, he made her eat some pomegranate seeds that would force her to return to him for four months each year. In her joy at being reunited with her daughter, Demeter caused the earth to bring forth bright spring flowers and abundant fruit and grain for the harvest. However, her sorrow returned each fall when Persephone had to go back to the underworld. The desolation of the winter season and the death of vegetation were regarded as the yearly manifestation of Demeter's grief when her daughter was taken from her. Demeter and Persephone were worshiped in the rites of the Eleusinian Mysteries. The cult spread from Sicily to Rome, where the goddesses were worshiped as Ceres and Proserpine.

Persephone Persephone, in Greek mythology, daughter of Zeus, father of the gods, and of Demeter, goddess of the earth and of agriculture. Hades, god of the underworld, fell in love with Persephone and wished to marry her. Although Zeus gave his consent, Demeter was unwilling. Hades, therefore, seized the maiden as she was gathering flowers and carried her off to his realm. As Demeter wandered in search of her lost daughter, the earth grew desolate. All vegetation died, and famine devastated the land. Finally Zeus sent Hermes, the messenger of the gods, to bring Persephone back to her mother. Before Hades would let her go, he asked her to eat a pomegranate seed, the food of the dead. She was thus compelled to return to the underworld for one-third of the year. As both the goddess of the dead and the goddess of the fertility of the earth, Persephone was a personification of the revival of nature in spring. The Eleusinian Mysteries were held in honor of her and her mother. Proserpine was the Latin counterpart of Persephone.

Purim

Purim Purim, one of the later Jewish festivals. Purim commemorates the deliverance of the Persian Jews from destruction in the reign of the Persian king Ahasuerus, or Xerxes I, as recorded in the Book of Esther. Held on the 14th and 15th days of the Jewish month of Adar (in the spring), it is celebrated by feasting and merriment, almsgiving, sending food to neighbors and friends, and chanting the text of Esther. It is perhaps the most joyous day of the Jewish year, with masquerades, plays, and drinking of wine even in the synagogue.

In Shushan, the capital of Persia, King Ahasuerus married the beautiful Esther, and made him his queen. He was not aware that she was Jewish. When Esther's cousin, Mordecai, annoyed the king's prime minister, Haman, the prime minister became enraged and finally convinced the king that the Jews should all be put to death. After a three day fast, Esther revealed to the king her identity as a Jew, and pleaded with him so save her people. The king spared the Jews, hung Haman, and made Mordecai his new prime minister.

• Fast of Esther, Adar 14 (Mar 8, 2004). If Adar 13 is a Saturday, then the Fast of Esther will be observed on the preceding Thursday. It will occur in Veadar in embolismic years. It celebrates Queen Esther's fast to save the Jews of Persia in 6th century BC after Ahasuerus made demands for the annihilation of her people.
• Purim, Adar 14 (Mar 8, 2004). A Jewish festival for the patron saint of pastry cooks and confectioners commemorating the deliverance of the Jews in Persia from destruction by Haman. It is celebrated by reading the Book of Esther in the synagogue, and eating hamantaschen. It will be observed in Veadar in embolismic years. Also known as Feast of Lots.
• Shushan Purim, Adar 15 (Mar 9, 2004).

Celebrating Purim Purim is undoubtedly the most high-spirited of Jewish holidays and probably the easiest to celebrate. Four mitzvot (plural of mitzvah) have become the essence of Purim. (A mitzvah is good deed that Jews do, or "a Jewish thing to do.")

1. The Reading of the Megillah

On Purim it is a mitzvah to hear the Megillah, the Book of Esther, read aloud. Purim's festivities center around this reading. The community gathers in costume, graggers/ra'ashanim (Purim noisemakers) in hand, prepared to hear the story. Carnivals, plays, special dinners and parties all follow from this moment.

The Megillah reading of Purim can be a wonderful opportunity to introduce children to a synagogue. Even without understanding the context, children can learn to associate Judaism with joy and celebration. They feel bonded to a people and community who know how to laugh and love their tradition enough to play with it and enjoy it.

The actual story of the Megillah is one of straightforward idealism. Its message for us and for our children is that every Jew can be a hero and that individuals can make a difference. Attending a Megillah reading and discussing the story of Esther with your children can help to foster a sense of self-worth and provide a role model for every would-be hero.

2. Giving Shalah Manot, Gifts of Food

Giving Shalah Manot reminds us that being a Jew means being part of the community and sharing celebrations with friends. Giving Shalah Manot is a simple mitzvah. It is just a matter of giving a gift of two or more kinds of food to the small circle of people important in your family's life. Shalah manot may typically include hamantashen (three-cornered cookies named after Haman), fruit, and candy on a decorated paper plate.

3. Giving Matanot la-Evyonim, Gifts to the Poor

In the Jewish tradition, every act of celebration, every moment of significance, and every formal gathering includes an opportunity for giving tzedakah. Tzedakah, coming from a Hebrew word meaning justice, is the obligation to help those who are in need by sharing part of the wealth we have been fortunate enough to accumulate.

4. Celebrate and Be Happy

On Purim, it is a mitzvah to celebrate and be happy. Parties, special meals, hamantashen, costumes, carnivals, plays and sounding graggers are all part of the Purim festival. It is even a mitzvah to get drunk—or at least drunk with gladness. (Adapted from Building Jewish Life: Purim, Torah Aura Productions, Los Angeles, CA)

A long, long time ago, many Jewish people lived in the city of Shushan in the country of Persia. The king of this great country was named King Ahashverosh (A-hash-vay-rosh). The queen of the great country was named Queen Vashti.

King Ahashverosh loved to give big parties in his palace. One night, he gave a big party and wanted Queen Vashti to dance for his guests. Vashti did not want to dance, so she sent a message that she would not attend the King's party. "Nobody says 'No' to the King," said an angry Ahashverosh, "Vashti will no longer be my queen!" And Ahashverosh sent Vashti away from the palace.

King Ahashverosh sent messages throughout his country calling all young women to the palace so that he could choose a new queen from among them. One young lady was a Jewish girl named Esther. She did not want to go, but her cousin, Mordechai, said she must. "Perhaps some day you may be able to help the Jewish people," suggested Mordechai. The King chose the beautiful and kind Esther to be his queen.

The King had a chief assistant to help him with all his important work. His name was Haman. Haman was a selfish, mean and greedy man. He would walk down the streets and tell everyone to bow down to him. People were afraid of him so they bowed down to him as he ordered.

But there was one man who refused to bow down. "I won't bow down to any man," he said, "I bow down only to my God, and Haman is not my God." This brave man was a Jew named Mordechai and Haman did not like him. Haman decided to punish all the Jews because of Mordechai. Haman did not know that Queen Esther was Jewish.

One day, Mordechai was standing outside the palace walls when he overheard two guards whispering about harming the King. Mordechai let the King know about it and saved him. The King was thankful and wanted to reward him. He gave Mordechai his best clothes to wear and told Haman to lead Mordechai through the streets of Shushan on the King's beautiful white horse. This made Haman even angrier and more determined to punish all the Jews.

One night, Esther invited the King and Haman to a party. She told the King that Haman wanted to hurt her. "I don't want to hurt you," exclaimed Haman, "You are my Queen." "Well," responded Esther, "you want to hurt the Jewish people and I am Jewish!" The King was shocked. He took Haman's job away from him and gave it to Mordechai. The Jews were very happy. They sang and danced and gave big parties.

Spring Equinox

Although, as the etymology of the word suggests, the term originally referred to the two times of year when night and day are the same length, the modern definition of the equinoxes is the instant at which the center of the Sun crosses declination 0 (i.e., the celestial equator, which is the projection of the Earth's equator onto the sky), moving northward. Spring (vernal) equinox (near March 21), and the earth passes from one time into the other, yet between one time and another. The Earth completely shed winter's sleep. As a time of passing, transition, it is powerful - a time of balance - equal day and equal night - so a time of magic.

The right ascension (i.e., the projection of lines of longitude onto the sky) at the Spring (vernal) equinox was originally located in the constellation Aries, and this point of crossing was known as the first point in Aries. As a result of precession, the vernal equinox now actually occurs when the sun is in the constellation in Pisces. The autumnal equinox (near September 23) occurs when the sun crosses the celestial equator moving southward.

With this definition, day and night are not quite the same length on the equinoxes due to (1) refraction of light from the sun as it passes through the Earth's atmosphere and (2) the fact that sunrise and sunset are calculated from the limb (not the center). Both of these effects slightly lengthen "day" relative to "night."

The dates of maximum tilt of the Earth's equator correspond to the summer solstice and winter solstice, and the dates of zero tilt to the vernal equinox and autumnal equinox.

There is a superstition that it is possible to stand an egg upright on its end on the date of the equinoxes (and/or solstices). This is true, at least for raw eggs (although not for hard-boiled ones). However, it is also possible to stand an egg on its end at any other time of the year. Although this feat is not trivial, a persistent person can usually succeed with enough practice and skill. However, the only connection between success in standing eggs upright and the equinox, to my knowledge, is that because of the superstition, many more people try and persist than would be the case on any other date. Of course, cheating by resting the egg on a thin layer of salt grains and then blowing all but a few invisible grains away is still far and away the easiest method!

The spring equinox is one of the four great solar festivals of the year. Day and night are equal, poised and balanced, but about to tip over on the side of light. The spring equinox is sacred to dawn, youth, the morning star and the east. The Saxon goddess, Eostre (from whose name we get the direction East and the holiday Easter) is a dawn goddess, like Aurora and Eos. Just as the dawn is the time of new light, so the vernal equinox is the time of new life.

Fall Equinox

The date (near September 21-23 in the northern hemisphere) when night and day are nearly of the same length and Sun crosses the celestial equator (i.e., declination 0) moving southward (in the northern hemisphere). In the southern hemisphere, the autumnal equinox corresponds to the center of the Sun crossing the celestial equator moving northward and occurs on the date of the northern vernal equinox. The autumnal equinox marks the first day of the season of autumn.

Today, the length of night time is equal to the length of daytime. At the Equinox, The Earth become's aware that this time is not the balance, or rather the order, one usually sees in nature. Nature is not really balanced. But ordered. A cyprus by the ocean grows windblown by ocean storm and wind, bowing towards the earth. That cyprus is the usual balance or order of nature - stable, poised, in harmony. ALL of nature leans like the ocean-blown cyprus towards the dark earth. But Fall Equinox is a balance of light and dark, night and day and therefore is truly an outlandish moment in time: equality, a equal balancing, an actual moment of balance. I draw on my roots in the darkness, yet revel in the kiss of summer breeze and sun.

Solstice means... standing-still-sun

Summer Solstice

In the northern hemisphere, the longest day of the year (near June 22) when the Sun is farthest north. In the southern hemisphere, winter and summer solstices are exchanged. The summer solstice marks the first day of the season of summer. The declination of the Sun on the (northern) summer solstice is known as the tropic of cancer (23° 27').

The summer solstice is the longest day of the year, respectively, in the sense that the length of time elapsed between sunrise and sunset on this day is a maximum for the year. Of course, daylight saving time means that the first Sunday in April has 23 hours and the last Sunday in October has 25 hours, but these human meddlings with the calendar and do not correspond to the actual number of daylight hours. In Chicago, there are 15:02 hours of daylight on the summer solstice of June 21, 1999.

Solstice

Solstice, in astronomy, term applied to either of the two points in the ecliptic at which the sun is farthest from the celestial equator. The solstice north of the celestial equator is called the summer solstice because the sun is at its greatest declination around June 21 (at the beginning of summer in the northern hemisphere); the solstice south of the celestial equator, called the winter solstice, occurs around December 21. The seasons are the reverse of the above for people living in the southern hemisphere. The term solstice means "sun stands still"; at these times the sun changes little in declination from one day to the next and appears to remain in one place north or south of the celestial equator.

Let's start with the science. The Earth is actually nearer the sun in January than it is in June -- by three million miles. Pretty much irrelevant to our planet. What causes the seasons is something completely different. The Earth leans slightly on its axis like a spinning top frozen in one off-kilter position. Astronomers have even pinpointed the precise angle of the tilt. It's 23 degrees and 27 minutes off the perpendicular to the plane of orbit. This planetary pose is what causes all the variety of our climate; all the drama and poetry of our seasons, since it determines how many hours and minutes each hemisphere receives precious sunlight.

Most of us have known something about this since grade school. What fascinateing about it is how we figured it out in the first place, especially before the advent of satellites and space travel. I haven't studied astronomy enough to understand how we came to know this. The axis is, after all, an imaginary line.

Winter Solstice

As the Earth travels around the Sun in its orbit, the north-south position of the Sun changes over the course of the year due to the changing orientation of the Earth's tilted rotation axes with respect to the Sun. The dates of maximum tilt of the Earth's equator correspond to the summer solstice and winter solstice, and the dates of zero tilt to the vernal equinox and autumnal equinox.

In the northern hemisphere, the Winter solstice is day of the year (near December 22) when the Sun is farthest south. However, in the southern hemisphere, winter and summer solstices are exchanged so that the winter solstice is the day on which the Sun is farthest north. The winter solstice marks the first day of the season of winter. The declination of the Sun on the (northern) winter solstice is known as the tropic of capricorn (-23° 27').

The winter solstice is the shortest day of the year, respectively, in the sense that the length of time elapsed between sunrise and sunset on this day is a minimum for the year. Of course, daylight saving time means that the first Sunday in April has 23 hours and the last Sunday in October has 25 hours, but these human meddlings with the calendar and do not correspond to the actual number of daylight hours. In Chicago, there are 9:20 hours of daylight on the winter solstice of December 22, 1999.

Such precision we have about it now! Winter solstice is when... ...because of the earth's tilt, your hemisphere is leaning farthest away from the sun, and therefore: The daylight is the shortest. The sun has its lowest arc in the sky.

When it's winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, the sun is directly overhead at noon only along the Tropic of Capricorn, on which lie such places as Sao Paulo, Brazil, southern Madagascar, and areas north of Brisbane, Australia.

Celebrated among the ancients as a turning point. No one's really sure how long ago humans recognized the winter solstice and began heralding it as a turning point -- the day that marks the return of the sun. One delightful little book written in 1948, 4,000 Years of Christmas, puts its theory right up in the title. The Mesopotamians were first, it claims, with a 12-day festival of renewal, designed to help the god Marduk tame the monsters of chaos for one more year.

It's a charming theory. But who knows how accurate it is? Cultural anthropology has advanced a lot in the last 50 years!

Many, many cultures the world over perform solstice ceremonies. At their root: an ancient fear that the failing light would never return unless humans intervened with anxious vigil or antic celebration. Solstice celebrations: universal & perhaps much older than we know.

There's much new scholarship about Neolithic peoples and their amazing culture. For example, it now looks as though writing is much more ancient than we earlier thought -- as much as 10,000 years old. Neolithic peoples were the first farmers. Their lives were intimately tied to the seasons and the cycle of harvest. I'm certain they were attuned to the turning skies.

Scholars haven't yet found proof that these peoples had the skill to pinpoint a celestial event like solstice. Earliest markers of time that we've found from these ancient peoples are notches carved into bone that appear to count the cycles of the moon. But perhaps they watched the movement of the sun as well as the moon, and perhaps they celebrated it -- with fertility rites, with fire festivals, with offerings and prayers to their gods and goddesses.

And perhaps, our impulse to hold onto certain traditions today -- candles, evergreens, feasting and generosity -- are echoes of a past that extends many thousands of years further than we ever before imagined.

The ancients: huge efforts to observe the solstices An utterly astounding array of ancient cultures built their greatest architectures -- tombs, temples, cairns and sacred observatories -- so that they aligned with the solstices and equinoxes. Many of us know that Stonehenge is a perfect marker of both solstices.

But not so many people are familiar with Newgrange, a beautiful megalithic site in Ireland. This huge circular stone structure is estimated to be 5,000 years old, older by centuries than Stonehenge, older than the Egyptian pyramids! It was built to receive a shaft of sunlight deep into its central chamber at dawn on winter solstice.

The light illuminates a stone basin below intricate carvings -- spirals, eye shapes, solar discs. Although not much is known about how Newgrange was used by its builders, marking the solstice was obviously of tremendous spiritual import to them. Here's more on this incredible ancient site.

Maeshowe, on the Orkney Islands north of Scotland, shares a similar trait, admitting the winter solstice setting sun. It is hailed as "one of the greatest architectural achievements of the prehistoric peoples of Scotland."

Hundreds of other megalithic structures throughout Europe are oriented to the solstices and the equinoxes. Likewise, sacred sites in the Americas, Asia, Indonesia, and the Middle East. Even cultures that followed a moon-based calendar seemed also to understand the importance of these sun-facing seasonal turning points.

And now a new book, The Sun in the Church reveals that many medieval Catholic churches were also built as solar observatories. The church, once again reinforcing the close ties between religious celebration and seasonal passages, needed astronomy to predict the date of Easter. And so observatories were built into cathedrals and churches throughout Europe. Typically, a small hole in the roof admitted a beam of sunlight, which would trace a path along the floor. The path, called the meridian line, was often marked by inlays and zodiacal motifs. The position at noon throughout the year, including the extremes of the solstices, was also carefully marked.

A linguistic puzzle. The rebirth of the sun. The birth of the Son. Christmas was transplanted onto winter solstice some 1,600 years ago, centuries before the English language emerged from its Germanic roots. Is that why we came to express these two ideas in words that sound so similar?

A family fertility ritual from Romania. You may have heard of apple wassailing, the medieval winter festival custom of blessing the apple trees with songs, dances, decorations and a drink of cider to ensure their fertility. Here's another, more obscure tradition that most certainly predates Christmas, and was probably once a solstice ritual, because it is so linked to the themes of nature's rebirth and fertility. In Romania, there's a traditional Christmas confection called a turta. It is made of many layers of pastry dough, filled with melted sugar or honey, ground walnuts, or hemp seed.

In this tradition, with the making of the cake families enact a lovely little ceremony to assure the fruitfulness of their orchard come spring. When the wife is in the midst of kneading the dough, she follows her husband into the wintry garden. The man goes from barren tree to tree, threatening to cut each one down. Each time, the wife urges that he spare the tree by saying: "Oh no, I am sure that this tree will be as heavy with fruit next spring as my fingers are with dough this day."

Winter solstice in many cultures. Winter solstice was overlaid with Christmas, and the observance of Christmas spread throughout the globe. Along the way, we lost some of the deep connection of our celebrations to a fundamental seasonal, hemispheric event. Many people--of many beliefs--are looking to regain that connection now.

I gain inspiration from the universality of the ancient idea--winter solstice celebrations aren't just an invention of the ancient Europeans.

Native Americans had winter solstice rites. The sun images at right are from rock paintings of the Chumash, who occupied coastal California for thousands of years before the Europeans arrived. Solstices were tremendously important to them, and the winter solstice celebration lasted several days.

In Iran, there is the observance of Yalda, in which families kept vigil through the night and fires burned brightly to help the sun (and Goodness) battle darkness (thought evil).

Winter solstice celebrations are also part of the cultural heritage of Pakistan and Tibet. And in China, even though the calendar is based on the moon, the day of winter solstice is called Dong Zhi, "The Arrival of Winter." The cold of winter made an excellent excuse for a feast, so that's how the Chinese observed it, with Ju Dong, "doing the winter."

And what of Hanukkah, the Jewish Festival of Lights that occurs Christmas? Is it related to other celebrations of the season?

The placement of Hanukkah is tied to both the lunar and solar calendars. It begins on the 25th of Kislev, three days before the new moon closest to the Winter Solstice. It commemorates an historic event -- the Maccabees' victory over the Greeks and the rededication of the temple at Jerusalem. But the form of this celebration, a Festival of Lights (with candles at the heart of the ritual), makes Hanukkah wonderfully compatible with other celebrations at this time of year. As a symbolic celebration of growing light and as a commemoration of spiritual rebirth, it also seems closely related to other observances.

In song
The rising of the sun
And the running of the deer,
The playing of the merry organ,
Sweet singing in the choir.
Now, where do you suppose the first couple of lines of this carol came from? There is a whole series of medieval English carols on the subject of the rivalry between the holly and the ivy. In many of them, the holly and ivy symbolized male and female, and the songs narrated their often rowdy vying for mastery in the forest or in the house.

And the next time you find yourself in a store, getting annoyed at incessant repetitions of "the Carol of the Bells," consider this: it's a remnant of the pre-Christian winter solstice celebration in the Ukraine. The Ukrainian carol called "Shchedryk" has the same melody as the Carol of the Bells, but different English words. The word "Shchedryk" means the "Generous One". It refers to the god of generosity, the Dazh Boh - the Giver God, which is the sun. I learned this fascinating fact from a Candlegrove visitor (a beautiful, thoughtful essay, don't miss it!).

A time of magic. In many cultures, customs practiced at Christmas go back to pre-Christian times. Many involve divination--foretelling the future at a magic time: the season turning of solstice.

In Russia, there's a Christmas divination that involves candles. A girl would sit in a darkened room, with two lighted candles and two mirrors, pointed so that one reflects the candlelight into the other. The viewer would seek the seventh reflection, then look until her future would be seen.

The early Germans built a stone altar to Hertha, or Bertha, goddess of domesticity and the home, during winter solstice. With a fire of fir boughs stoked on the altar, Hertha was able to descend through the smoke and guide those who were wise in Saga lore to foretell the fortunes of those at the feast.

In Spain, there's an old custom that is a holdover from Roman days. The urn of fate is a large bowl containing slips of paper on which are written all the names of those at a family get-togehter. The slips of paper are drawn out two at a time. Those whose names are so joined are to be devoted friends for the year. Apparently, there's often a little finagling to help matchmaking along, as well.

In Scandinavia, some families place all their shoes together, as this will cause them to live in harmony throughout the year.

And in many, many cultures, it's considered bad luck for a fire or a candle to go out on Christmas Day. So keep those candles burning!

Saturnalia

Is a week-long feast of total reversal. It lasts from December 17th to the 23rd. The holiday was originally used to celebrate Saturn, the Roman king of the gods. During the festival, masters serve their slaves and men wear women's clothing. Instead of real fruit, people give offerings of wax fruit to Saturn. The highlight of the week is the crowning of the king when a criminal is picked out of the jail and crowned king for the week. He is allowed to do anything he wants for that week. Meanwhile, the king is locked in the jail cell where he used to be. This week of jubilant feasting and revelry started out as a Winter Solstice festival and later developed into what it is today.

In Italy is celebrated not only on December 25th but also on December 26th. One of the decorations is the ceppo, a pyramid with many shelves. There are candles on the top shelves, and there is a manger scene known as a presepio on the bottom shelf. On Christmas Day, Roman Catholics must go to two masses. One at midnight and one at dawn. Despite the fact that it is such a Christian holiday, the idea of having a large Christmas dinner comes from the feasting of Saturnalia!

Shrovetide

• Septuagesima, third Sunday before Lent (Feb 8, 2004).
• Sexagesima, second Sunday before Lent (Feb 15, 2004).
• Shrovetide. The three days before Ash Wednesday, which was once a time for confession and absolution.
• Shrove Sunday, Sunday before Ash Wednesday (Feb 22, 2004). Also Quinquagesima.
• Shrove Monday, Monday before Ash Wednesday (Feb 23, 2004). Also called Rose Monday. In Denmark, today is called Fastelavn. In Germany and Austria today coincides with Fasching (or Feast of Fools).
• Shrove Tuesday, day before Ash Wednesday (Feb 24, 2004). Today is the last day of Shrovetide, and a time of merrymaking before Lent. Also known as Mardi Gras.
• Ash Wednesday, 46 days before Easter (Feb 25, 2004). The Day of Ashes, is the first day of Lent, occuring forty days before Easter not counting Sundays. The ancient custom on this day is for the faithful to receive on the forehead the sign of a cross marked with blessed ashes. The palms from the previous Palm Sunday are burned and the ashes are blessed for the ceremony before the Mass.

Lent

Lent is the penitential season preceding Easter, observed with forty days of fast in memory of Christ's forty days of fast in the desert. Lent consists of forty weekdays and six Sundays. The name is derived from the Middle English Lente, and refers to the lengthening of the daylight hours. [eating fish is a holdover from pagan things]

• Quadragesima, first Sunday of Lent (Feb 29, 2004). May also mean the forty days of Lent.
• Orthodoxy Sunday, first Sunday of Lent (Feb 29, 2004). Commemorates the restoration of the use of icons in the church (842 AD), and the triumph over all heresies.
• Laetare Sunday, fourth Sunday of Lent (Mar 21, 2004). Takes its name from the introit of that day which begins with "Laetare Jerusalem" (Rejoice ye, Jerusalem). Also known as Mid-Lent Sunday. In England it is called Mothering Sunday, and has its own customs.
• Passion Sunday, fifth Sunday in Lent (Mar 28, 2004). Two weeks before Easter. Also known as Judica.
• Passiontide. The two-week period from Passion Sunday to Holy Saturday.
• Passion Week. May refer to the week preceding Easter, also known as Holy Week, or the week before Holy Week beginning with Passion Sunday

St Ag·nes's Eve

[saynt ágnssz v ] (plural St Ag·nes's Eves) noun CALENDAR night for dreaming of a future partner: January 20, the eve of St. Agnes's Day, on which, according to British folklore, people dream of their future partners if they have performed particular rituals before going to sleep.

Feast of Saint Agnes

, January 21. Patron saint of virgins, chasity, young women, and betrothed couples. She came from a wealthy Roman family, and was martyred at an early age for being a Christian. St Ambrose gives her age as twelve, and St Augustine says she was thirteen. In the many embellished accounts of her martyrdom she always appears incredibly beautiful and vowed to chasity. Perhaps she was exposed as a Christian by a rejected suiter, or perhaps she declared herself Christian after the imperial edict against Christians. In one account of her legend, she was sent to a brothel so that her virginity would be taken, but when a young man looked upon her with impure thoughts, he was stricken with blindness. On this day in Rome the Pope blesses two lambs whose wool is used to make pallia, circular bands which are sent to the Pope's archbishops. The association with lambs is due to the similarity of her name to the Latin agnus, meaning "lamb".

Saint Agnes' Eve, January 20. Superstition has it that on this night a girl may see the image of her future husband by performing certain rituals. These rites often consisted either of not eating anything that day, or of eating something rotten, which may explain the visions. John Keats wrote about this superstition in his poem The Eve of St Agnes.

They told her how, upon St. Agnes' Eve, Young virgins might have visions of delight, And soft adorings from their loves receive Upon the honey'd middle of the night If ceremonies due they did aright; As, supperless to bed they must retire, And couch supine their beauties, lily white; Nor look behind, nor sideways, but require Of Heaven with upward eyes for all that they desire.

These customs were once common in the British Isles, but have now been all but forgotten. It is probably only a coincidence that this superstition is related to St Agnes, considering that she chose to be tortured to death rather than get married.

Second feast of Agnes

, January 28. Listed in the Roman Catholic Missal.

St Bartholomew

1st. century, one of the 12. Feastday: August 24 Saint Bartholomew, in the Synoptic Gospels, and Acts one of the 12 apostles of Christ (see Mark 3:14-19). His name, a patronymic, means "son of Tolomai" and is idendified by many biblical scholars believe with Nathanael mentioned in John,1:45-51 who says he is from Cana (native of Galilee) and that Jesus called him an "Israelite...incapable of deceit." Unsubstantiated tradition (Roman Martyrology) relates that he was a missionary in many countries and preached the gospel in India (properly Arabia (Greater Armenia), where he left behind a copy, in Hebrew, of the Gospel of Matthew. He is traditionally said to have been flayed alive and beheaded by King Astyages in Albanopolis, Armenia, or in India. Saint Bartholomew's feast day is August 24 in the Roman Catholic church and the Church of England, and June 11 in the Orthodox church.

Tradition has the place as Abanopolis on the west coast of the Caspian Sea and that he also preached in Mesopotamia, Persia, and Egypt. The Gospel of Bartholomew is apochryphal and was condemned in the decree of Pseudo-Gelasius. Feast Day August 24.

St. John's Eve / Midsummer Eve

Midsummer Eve, also Saint John's Eve, June 23, night before the festival of the nativity of John the Baptist. Throughout Europe peasants often celebrated this night by lighting fires in streets and marketplaces. Although the fires were often blessed by priests, the celebration was generally conducted by the laity. Midsummer eve celebrations were a continuance of the Teutonic pagan festivals and fertility rites associated with agriculture at the time of the summer solstice.

Saint Thomas

Saint Thomas, one of the twelve apostles of Jesus Christ. Although much has been written on his life, only biblical accounts, principally those in the Book of John, are considered reliable. The first of three references (see John 11:5-16) implies Thomas's devotion to Jesus: When Jesus sets out for Judea, where Jews have threatened to stone him, Thomas suggests, "Let us also go, that we may die with him." The second reference (John 14:1-7) occurs at the Last Supper, during which Jesus says, "And you know the way where I am going." Thomas asks, "... how can we know the way?" Jesus responds, "I am the way, and the truth, and the life." In John 20:19-29, Thomas, absent when Jesus first appears to the apostles after the Resurrection, doubts the others' accounts of the event. When Jesus appears again and invites Thomas to touch his wounds, the apostle exclaims, "My Lord and my God!" Thus Thomas was the first to explicitly recognize Christ's divinity. The phrase "doubting Thomas" stems from this account.

Saint Valentine's Day

Valentine's Day, a holiday honoring lovers. It is celebrated February 14 by the custom of sending greeting cards or gifts to express affection. The cards, known as valentines, are often designed with hearts to symbolize love. The holiday probably derives from the ancient Roman feast of Lupercalis (February 15). The festival gradually became associated with the feast day (February 14) of two Roman martyrs, both named St. Valentine, who lived in the 3rd century. St. Valentine has traditionally been regarded as the patron saint of lovers.

Who was Valentine? This question is not an easy one to answer. Depending on which book you read you might find one author making the case that there was two different men named Valentine whose lives were mixed together to form one legend, and another arguing that two different legends arose about the same man. Even still another author might say that there were three men named Valentine.

Here are several synopsis or different stories...

Valentine was a Roman priest who was martyred during the persecution of Claudius the Goth around A.D. 269 or 270 and buried on the Flaminian Way. Valentine was a bishop of Terni martyred in Rome. Valentine as a young, though unsaved helped Christians during a time of persecution. He was caught and put in jail, became a believer there and was clubbed to death for this on February 14, 269. While in prison he is said to have sent messages to friends saying, "Remember your Valentine" and "I love you".

In one story it is said that Valentine was a priest that secretly married couples, defying the law of Emperor Claudius which temporarily forbid marriages. Valentine was imprisoned for refusing to worship pagan gods. Making friends with the jailers daughter, he is said to have cured her through prayer, and on the date of his execution (Feb. 14th) he is said to written her a not signed "Your Valentine".

The one thing we can be sure of is that at least one person by the name of Valentine did live and that he was killed for being a Christian. Beyond this we are on shaky ground.

The 14th of February was set apart as the special day to remember Saint Valentine. This was one day before the Roman feast of Lupercalia, a pagan love festival. In 496 A.D. Pope Gelasius changed Lupercalia from the 15th to the 14th to try and stop the pagan celebration. The church realized that there was nothing wrong with celebrating love, only the pagan elements insulted God. Lupercalia was done away with, but it had left it's mark on Saint Valentine's Day. Valentine had become known as the patron of lovers.

Part of the Roman festival of Lupercalia was the putting of girl's names in a box and letting the boys draw them out. These couples were supposedly paired off for the whole year. A similar practice was began in the fourteenth century. A sweetheart was chosen for a day by lot. This was done to correspond with the belief that the springtime mating of birds took place on Valentine's Day. Messages sent between these randomly chosen pair were a forerunner of the modern Valentine's Day Card. Specially printed card for Valentine's were just becoming common by the 1780's. They were a big hit in Germany where they were called Freundschaftkarten, or "friendship cards."

So, should Christians celebrate Valentine's Day? Absolutely. Though we're not quite sure who Valentine was, we certainly know that God approves of love, even romantic love. Let's just make sure that Valentine's Day is an extra special day to display even more love than usual to those around us, and not our only day show love this year.

The holiday of Valentine's Day probably derives its origins from the ancient Roman feast of Lupercalia. In the early days of Rome, fierce wolves roamed the woods nearby. The Romans called upon one of their gods, Lupercus, to keep the wolves away. A festival held in honor of Lupercus was celebrated February 15th. The festival was celebrated as a spring festival. Their calendar was different at that time, with February falling in early springtime.

One of the customs of the young people was name-drawing. On the eve of the festival of Lupercalia the names of Roman girls were written on slips of paper and placed into jars. Each young man drew a slip. The girl whose name was chosen was to be his sweetheart for the year

Legend has it that the holiday became Valentine's Day after a priest named Valentine. Valentine was a priest in Rome at the time Christianity was a new religion. The Emperor at that time, Claudius II, ordered the Roman soldiers NOT to marry or become engaged. Claudius believed that as married men, his soldiers would want to stay home with their families rather than fight his wars. Valentine defied the Emperor's decree and secretly married the young couples. He was eventually arrested, imprisoned, and put to death

Valentine was beheaded on February 14th, the eve of the Roman holiday Lupercalia. After his death, Valentine was named a saint. As Rome became more Christian, the priests moved the spring holiday from the 15th of February to the 14th - Valentine's Day. Now the holiday honored Saint Valentine instead of Lupercus

Cupid has always played a role in the celebrations of love and lovers. He is known as a mischievous, winged child, whose arrows who would pierce the hearts of his victims causing them to fall deeply in love. In ancient Greece he was known as Eros the young son of Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty. To the Roman's he was Cupid, and his mother Venus.

One legend tells the story of Cupid and the mortal maiden, Psyche. Venus was jealous of the beauty of Psyche, and ordered Cupid to punish the mortal. But instead, Cupid fell deeply in love with her. He took her as his wife, but as a mortal she was forbidden to look at him. Psyche was happy until her sisters convinced her to look at Cupid. Cupid punished her by departing. Their lovely castle and gardens vanished with him and Psyche found herself alone in an open field

As she wandered to find her love, she came upon the temple of Venus. Wishing to destroy her, the goddess of love gave Psyche a series of tasks, each harder and dangerous than the last. For her last task Psyche was given a little box and told to take it to the underworld. She was told to get some of the beauty of Proserpine, the wife of Pluto, and put it in the box.

During her trip she was given tips on avoiding the dangers of the realm of the dead. And also warned not to open the box. Temptation would overcome Psyche and she opened the box. But instead of finding beauty, she found deadly slumber

Cupid found her lifeless on the ground. He gathered the sleep from her body and put it back in the box. Cupid forgave her, as did Venus. The gods, moved by Psyche's love for Cupid made her a goddess.

Up-Helly-Aa

On old Christmas eve in 1824 a visiting Methodist missionary wrote in his diary that "the whole town was in an uproar: from twelve o clock last night until late this night blowing of horns, beating of drums, tinkling of old tin kettles, firing of guns, shouting, bawling, fiddling, fifeing, drinking, fighting. This was the state of the town all the night - the street was as thronged with people as any fair I ever saw in England."

As Lerwick grew in size the celebrations became more elaborate. Sometime about 1840 the participants introduced burning tar barrels into the proceedings. "Sometimes", as one observer wrote, "there were two tubs fastened to a great raft-like frame knocked together at the Docks, whence the combustibles were generally obtained. Two chains were fastened to the bogie asupporting the capacious tub or tar-barrel . . . eked to these were two strong ropes on which a motley mob, wearing masks for the most part, fastened. A party of about a dozen were told off to stir up the molten contents."

The main street of Lerwick in the mid-19th century was extremely narrow, and rival groups of tar-barrelers frequently clashed in the middle. The proceeding were thus dangerous and dirty, and Lerwick's middle classes often complained about them. The Town Council began to appoint special constables every Christmas to control the revellers, with only limited success. When the end came for tar-barreling, in the early 1870s, it seems to have been because the young Lerwegians themselves had decided it was time for a change.

Around 1870 a group of young men in the town with intellectual interests injected a series of new ideas into the proceedings. First, they improvised the name Up-Helly-Aa, and gradually postponed the celebrations until the end of January. Secondly, they introduced a far more elaborate element of disguise - "guizing" - into the new festival. Thirdly, they inaugurated a torchlight procession.

At the same time they were toying with the idea of introducing Viking themes to their new festival. The first signs of this new development appeared in 1877, but it was not until the late 1880s that a Viking longship - the "galley" - appeared, and as late as 1906 that a "Guizer Jarl", the chief guizer, arrived on the scene. It was not until after the First World War that there was a squad of Vikings, the "Guizer Jarl's Squad", in the procession every year.

Up to the Second World War Up-Helly-Aa was overwhelmingly a festival of young working class men - women have never taken part in the procession - and during the depression years the operation was run on a shoestring. In the winter of 1931-32 there was an unsuccessful move to cancel the festival becuse of the dire economic situation in the town. At the same time, the Up-Helly-Aa committee became a self-confident organisation which poked fun at the pompus in the by then long-established Up-Helly-Aa "bill" - sometimes driving their victims to fury.

Since 1949, when the festival resumed after the war, much has changed and much has remained the same. That year the BBC recorded a major radio programme on Up-Helly-Aa, and from that moment Up-Helly-Aa - not noted for its split-second timing before the war - became a model of efficient organisation. The numbers participating in the festival have become much greater, and the resources required correspondingly larger. Whereas in the 19th century individuals kept open house to welcome the guizers on Up-Helly-Aa night, men and women now co-operate to open large halls throughout the town to entertain them.

However, despite the changes, there are numerous threads connecting the Up-Helly-Aa of today with its predecessors 150 years ago.

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